calls
+x, -x, ~x Unary operators
x**y Power
- x*y x/y x%y mult, division, modulo
+ x*y x/y x%y x//y mult, division, modulo, floor division
x+y x-y addition, substraction
x<<y x>>y Bit shifting
x&y Bitwise and
numeric bounds exceeded
ZeroDivisionError
raised when zero second argument of div or modulo op
+FloatingPointError
+ raised when a floating point operation fails
Operations on all sequence types (lists, tuples, strings)
Operations on all sequence types
Operation Result Notes
-x in s 1 if an item of s is equal to x, else 0
-x not in s 0 if an item of s is equal to x, else 1
+x in s True if an item of s is equal to x, else False
+x not in s False if an item of s is equal to x, else True
for x in s: loops over the sequence
s + t the concatenation of s and t
s * n, n*s n copies of s concatenated
del s[i:j] same as s[i:j] = []
s.append(x) same as s[len(s) : len(s)] = [x]
s.count(x) return number of i's for which s[i] == x
-s.extend(x) same as s[len(s):len(s)]= x
+s.extend(x) same as s[len(s):len(s)]= x
s.index(x) return smallest i such that s[i] == x (1)
s.insert(i, x) same as s[i:i] = [x] if i >= 0
s.pop([i]) same as x = s[i]; del s[i]; return x (4)
d.clear() remove all items from d
d.copy() a shallow copy of d
d.get(k,defaultval) the item of d with key k (4)
-d.has_key(k) 1 if d has key k, else 0
+d.has_key(k) True if d has key k, else False
d.items() a copy of d's list of (key, item) pairs (2)
d.iteritems() an iterator over (key, value) pairs (7)
d.iterkeys() an iterator over the keys of d (7)
f.close() Close file f.
f.fileno() Get fileno (fd) for file f.
f.flush() Flush file f's internal buffer.
-f.isatty() 1 if file f is connected to a tty-like dev, else 0.
+f.isatty() True if file f is connected to a tty-like dev, else False.
f.read([size]) Read at most size bytes from file f and return as a string
object. If size omitted, read to EOF.
f.readline() Read one entire line from file f.
End-of-file hit when reading (may be raised many times, e.g. if f is a
tty).
IOError
- Other I/O-related I/O operation failure
+ Other I/O-related I/O operation failure.
+ OSError
+ OS system call failed.
Advanced Types
continue -- immediately does next iteration of "for" or "while" loop
return [result] -- Exits from function (or method) and returns result (use a tuple to
return more than one value). If no result given, then returns None.
+ yield result -- Freezes the execution frame of a generator and returns the result
+ to the iterator's .next() method. Upon the next call to next(),
+ resumes execution at the frozen point with all of the local variables
+ still intact.
Exception Statements
abs(x) Return the absolute value of number x.
apply(f, args[, Calls func/method f with arguments args and optional
keywords]) keywords.
-callable(x) Returns 1 if x callable, else 0.
+bool(x) Returns True when the argument x is true and False otherwise.
+buffer(obj) Creates a buffer reference to an object.
+callable(x) Returns True if x callable, else False.
chr(i) Returns one-character string whose ASCII code isinteger i
+classmethod(f) Converts a function f, into a method with the class as the
+ first argument. Useful for creating alternative constructors.
cmp(x,y) Returns negative, 0, positive if x <, ==, > to y
coerce(x,y) Returns a tuple of the two numeric arguments converted to a
common type.
image]) suffix,e.g. 1+3J)
delattr(obj, name) deletes attribute named name of object obj <=> del obj.name
If no args, returns the list of names in current
+dict([items]) Create a new dictionary from the specified item list.
dir([object]) localsymbol table. With a module, class or class
instanceobject as arg, returns list of names in its attr.
dict.
divmod(a,b) Returns tuple of (a/b, a%b)
+enumerate(seq) Return a iterator giving: (0, seq[0]), (1, seq[1]), ...
eval(s[, globals[, Eval string s in (optional) globals, locals contexts.s must
locals]]) have no NUL's or newlines. s can also be acode object.
Example: x = 1; incr_x = eval('x + 1')
execfile(file[, Executes a file without creating a new module, unlike
globals[, locals]]) import.
+file() Synonym for open().
filter(function, Constructs a list from those elements of sequence for which
sequence) function returns true. function takes one parameter.
float(x) Converts a number or a string to floating point.
hasattr(object, Returns true if object has attr called name.
name)
hash(object) Returns the hash value of the object (if it has one)
+help(f) Display documentation on object f.
hex(x) Converts a number x to a hexadecimal string.
id(object) Returns a unique 'identity' integer for an object.
input([prompt]) Prints prompt if given. Reads input and evaluates it.
issubclass(class1, returns true if class1 is derived from class2
class2)
Returns the length (the number of items) of an object
+iter(collection) Returns an iterator over the collection.
len(obj) (sequence, dictionary, or instance of class implementing
__len__).
list(sequence) Converts sequence into a list. If already a list,returns a
dependent]]) (about) given size.
ord(c) Returns integer ASCII value of c (a string of len 1). Works
with Unicode char.
+object() Create a base type. Used as a superclass for new-style objects.
+open(name Open a file.
+ [, mode
+ [, buffering]])
pow(x, y [, z]) Returns x to power y [modulo z]. See also ** operator.
+property() Created a property with access controlled by functions.
range(start [,end Returns list of ints from >= start and < end.With 1 arg,
[, step]]) list from 0..arg-1With 2 args, list from start..end-1With 3
args, list from start up to end by step
slice([start,] stop Returns a slice object representing a range, with R/
[, step]) Oattributes: start, stop, step.
Returns a string containing a nicely
+staticmethod() Convert a function to method with no self or class
+ argument. Useful for methods associated with a class that
+ do not need access to an object's internal state.
str(object) printablerepresentation of an object. Class overridable
(__str__).See also repr().
+super(type) Create an unbound super object. Used to call cooperative
+ superclass methods.
tuple(sequence) Creates a tuple with same elements as sequence. If already
a tuple, return itself (not a copy).
Returns a type object [see module types] representing
Root class for all exceptions
SystemExit
On 'sys.exit()'
+ StopIteration
+ Signal the end from iterator.next()
StandardError
Base class for all built-in exceptions; derived from Exception
root class.
On passing inappropriate type to built-in op or func
ValueError
On arg error not covered by TypeError or more precise
+ Warning
+ UserWarning
+ DeprecationWarning
+ PendingDeprecationWarning
+ SyntaxWarning
+ OverflowWarning
+ RuntimeWarning
+ FutureWarning
__cmp__(s, o) Compares s to o and returns <0, 0, or >0.
Implements >, <, == etc...
__hash__(s) Compute a 32 bit hash code; hash() and dictionary ops
- __nonzero__(s) Returns 0 or 1 for truth value testing
+ __nonzero__(s) Returns False or True for truth value testing
__getattr__(s, name) called when attr lookup doesn't find <name>
__setattr__(s, name, val) called when setting an attr
(inside, don't use "self.name = value"
Special informative state attributes for some types:
- Lists & Dictionaries:
- __methods__ (list, R/O): list of method names of the object
-
Modules:
__doc__ (string/None, R/O): doc string (<=> __dict__['__doc__'])
__name__(string, R/O): module name (also in __dict__['__name__'])
__dict__ (dict, R/O): module's name space
__file__(string/undefined, R/O): pathname of .pyc, .pyo or .pyd (undef for
modules statically linked to the interpreter)
- __path__(string/undefined, R/O): fully qualified package name when applies.
Classes: [in bold: writable since 1.5.2]
__doc__ (string/None, R/W): doc string (<=> __dict__['__doc__'])
+ __module__ is the module name in which the class was defined
__name__(string, R/W): class name (also in __dict__['__name__'])
__bases__ (tuple, R/W): parent classes
__dict__ (dict, R/W): attributes (class name space)
Instances:
__class__ (class, R/W): instance's class
__dict__ (dict, R/W): attributes
+
User-defined functions: [bold: writable since 1.5.2]
__doc__ (string/None, R/W): doc string
__name__(string, R/O): function name
func_defaults (tuple/None, R/W): default args values if any
func_code (code, R/W): code object representing the compiled function body
func_globals (dict, R/O): ref to dictionary of func global variables
+ func_dict (dict, R/W): same as __dict__ contains the namespace supporting
+ arbitrary function attributes
+ func_closure (R/O): None or a tuple of cells that contain bindings
+ for the function's free variables.
+
User-defined Methods:
__doc__ (string/None, R/O): doc string
im_class (class, R/O): class defining the method (may be a base class)
im_self (instance/None, R/O): target instance object (None if unbound)
im_func (function, R/O): function object
+
Built-in Functions & methods:
__doc__ (string/None, R/O): doc string
__name__ (string, R/O): function name
__self__ : [methods only] target object
- __members__ = list of attr names: ['__doc__','__name__','__self__'])
+
Codes:
co_name (string, R/O): function name
co_argcount (int, R/0): number of positional args
co_nlocals (int, R/O): number of local vars (including args)
co_varnames (tuple, R/O): names of local vars (starting with args)
+ co_cellvars (tuple, R/O)) the names of local variables referenced by
+ nested functions
+ co_freevars (tuple, R/O)) names of free variables
co_code (string, R/O): sequence of bytecode instructions
co_consts (tuple, R/O): litterals used by the bytecode, 1st one is
fct doc (or None)
co_firstlineno (int, R/O): first line number of the function
co_lnotab (string, R/O): string encoding bytecode offsets to line numbers.
co_stacksize (int, R/O): required stack size (including local vars)
- co_firstlineno (int, R/O): first line number of the function
co_flags (int, R/O): flags for the interpreter
bit 2 set if fct uses "*arg" syntax
bit 3 set if fct uses '**keywords' syntax
Complex numbers:
real (float, R/O): real part
imag (float, R/O): imaginary part
- XRanges:
- tolist (Built-in method, R/O): ?
Important Modules
Function Result
exit(n) Exits with status n. Raises SystemExit exception.(Hence can
be caught and ignored by program)
-getrefcount(object Returns the reference count of the object. Generally 1
-) higherthan you might expect, because of object arg temp
+getrefcount(object Returns the reference count of the object. Generally one
+) higher than you might expect, because of object arg temp
reference.
setcheckinterval( Sets the interpreter's thread switching interval (in number
-interval) ofvirtualcode instructions, default:10).
+interval) of virtual code instructions, default:10).
settrace(func) Sets a trace function: called before each line ofcode is
exited.
setprofile(func) Sets a profile function for performance profiling.
Info on exception currently being handled; this is atuple
(exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback).Warning: assigning the
exc_info() traceback return value to a loca variable in a
- functionhandling an exception will cause a circular
+ function handling an exception will cause a circular
reference.
setdefaultencoding Change default Unicode encoding - defaults to 7-bit ASCII.
(encoding)
ceil(x)
cos(x)
cosh(x)
+degrees(x)
exp(x)
fabs(x)
floor(x)
fmod(x, y)
frexp(x) -- Unlike C: (float, int) = frexp(float)
ldexp(x, y)
-log(x)
+log(x [,base])
log10(x)
modf(x) -- Unlike C: (float, float) = modf(float)
pow(x, y)
+radians(x)
sin(x)
sinh(x)
sqrt(x)
bdb A generic Python debugger base class.
binhex Macintosh binhex compression/decompression.
bisect List bisection algorithms.
-bz2 Support for bz2 compression/decompression.
+bz2 Support for bz2 compression/decompression.
calendar Calendar printing functions.
cgi Wraps the WWW Forms Common Gateway Interface (CGI).
-cgitb Utility for handling CGI tracebacks.
+cgitb Utility for handling CGI tracebacks.
CGIHTTPServer CGI http services.
cmd A generic class to build line-oriented command interpreters.
-datetime Basic date and time types.
+datetime Basic date and time types.
code Utilities needed to emulate Python's interactive interpreter
codecs Lookup existing Unicode encodings and register new ones.
colorsys Conversion functions between RGB and other color systems.
dbhash (g)dbm-compatible interface to bsdhash.hashopen.
dircache Sorted list of files in a dir, using a cache.
[DEL:dircmp:DEL] [DEL:Defines a class to build directory diff tools on.:DEL]
-difflib Tool for creating delta between sequences.
+difflib Tool for creating delta between sequences.
dis Bytecode disassembler.
distutils Package installation system.
-doctest Tool for running and verifying tests inside doc strings.
+doctest Tool for running and verifying tests inside doc strings.
dospath Common operations on DOS pathnames.
dumbdbm A dumb and slow but simple dbm clone.
[DEL:dump:DEL] [DEL:Print python code that reconstructs a variable.:DEL]
-email Comprehensive support for internet email.
+email Comprehensive support for internet email.
exceptions Class based built-in exception hierarchy.
filecmp File comparison.
fileinput Helper class to quickly write a loop over all standard input
gopherlib Gopher protocol client interface.
[DEL:grep:DEL] [DEL:'grep' utilities.:DEL]
gzip Read & write gzipped files.
-heapq Priority queue implemented using lists organized as heaps.
-HMAC Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication -- RFC 2104.
+heapq Priority queue implemented using lists organized as heaps.
+HMAC Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication -- RFC 2104.
htmlentitydefs Proposed entity definitions for HTML.
htmllib HTML parsing utilities.
-HTMLParser A parser for HTML and XHTML.
+HTMLParser A parser for HTML and XHTML.
httplib HTTP client class.
ihooks Hooks into the "import" mechanism.
imaplib IMAP4 client.Based on RFC 2060.
imghdr Recognizing image files based on their first few bytes.
imputil Privides a way of writing customised import hooks.
-inspect Tool for probing live Python objects.
+inspect Tool for probing live Python objects.
keyword List of Python keywords.
knee A Python re-implementation of hierarchical module import.
linecache Cache lines from files.
linuxaudiodev Lunix /dev/audio support.
locale Support for number formatting using the current locale
settings.
-logging Python logging facility.
+logging Python logging facility.
macpath Pathname (or related) operations for the Macintosh.
macurl2path Mac specific module for conversion between pathnames and URLs.
mailbox A class to handle a unix-style or mmdf-style mailbox.
nntplib An NNTP client class. Based on RFC 977.
ntpath Common operations on DOS pathnames.
nturl2path Mac specific module for conversion between pathnames and URLs.
-optparse A comprehensive tool for processing command line options.
+optparse A comprehensive tool for processing command line options.
os Either mac, dos or posix depending system.
[DEL:packmail: [DEL:Create a self-unpacking shell archive.:DEL]
DEL]
pickle Pickling (save and restore) of Python objects (a faster
Cimplementation exists in built-in module: cPickle).
pipes Conversion pipeline templates.
-pkgunil Utilities for working with Python packages.
+pkgunil Utilities for working with Python packages.
popen2 variations on pipe open.
poplib A POP3 client class. Based on the J. Myers POP3 draft.
posixfile Extended (posix) file operations.
recursively.
profile Class for profiling python code.
pstats Class for printing reports on profiled python code.
-pydoc Utility for generating documentation from source files.
+pydoc Utility for generating documentation from source files.
pty Pseudo terminal utilities.
pyexpat Interface to the Expay XML parser.
py_compile Routine to "compile" a .py file to a .pyc file.
rlcompleter Word completion for GNU readline 2.0.
robotparser Parse robot.txt files, useful for web spiders.
sched A generally useful event scheduler class.
-sets Module for a set datatype.
+sets Module for a set datatype.
sgmllib A parser for SGML.
shelve Manage shelves of pickled objects.
shlex Lexical analyzer class for simple shell-like syntaxes.
sunaudio Interpret sun audio headers.
symbol Non-terminal symbols of Python grammar (from "graminit.h").
tabnanny,/font> Check Python source for ambiguous indentation.
-tarfile Facility for reading and writing to the *nix tarfile format.
+tarfile Facility for reading and writing to the *nix tarfile format.
telnetlib TELNET client class. Based on RFC 854.
tempfile Temporary file name allocation.
-textwrap Object for wrapping and filling text.
+textwrap Object for wrapping and filling text.
threading Proposed new higher-level threading interfaces
threading_api (doc of the threading module)
toaiff Convert "arbitrary" sound files to AIFF files .
UserString A wrapper to allow subclassing of built-in string class.
[DEL:util:DEL] [DEL:some useful functions that don't fit elsewhere !!:DEL]
uu UUencode/UUdecode.
-unittest Utilities for implementing unit testing.
+unittest Utilities for implementing unit testing.
wave Stuff to parse WAVE files.
-weakref Tools for creating and managing weakly referenced objects.
+weakref Tools for creating and managing weakly referenced objects.
webbrowser Platform independent URL launcher.
[DEL:whatsound: [DEL:Several routines that help recognizing sound files.:DEL]
DEL]
xmllib A parser for XML, using the derived class as static DTD.
xml.dom Classes for processing XML using the Document Object Model.
xml.sax Classes for processing XML using the SAX API.
-xmlrpclib Support for remote procedure calls using XML.
+xmlrpclib Support for remote procedure calls using XML.
zipfile Read & write PK zipped files.
[DEL:zmod:DEL] [DEL:Demonstration of abstruse mathematical concepts.:DEL]
-(following list not revised)
-
* Built-ins *
sys Interpreter state vars and functions
__main__ Scope of the interpreters main program, script or stdin
array Obj efficiently representing arrays of basic values
math Math functions of C standard
- time Time-related functions
+ time Time-related functions (also the newer datetime module)
regex Regular expression matching operations
marshal Read and write some python values in binary format
struct Convert between python values and C structs
os A more portable interface to OS dependent functionality
re Functions useful for working with regular expressions
string Useful string and characters functions and exceptions
- whrandom Wichmann-Hill pseudo-random number generator
+ random Mersenne Twister pseudo-random number generator
thread Low-level primitives for working with process threads
threading idem, new recommanded interface.
md5 Interface to RSA's MD5 message digest algorithm
mpz Interface to int part of GNU multiple precision library
- rotor Implementation of a rotor-based encryption algorithm
+ rotor Implementation of a rotor-based encryption algorithm
+ HMAC Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication -- RFC 2104.
* Stdwin * Standard Window System
dir(<module>) list functions, variables in <module>
dir() get object keys, defaults to local name space
- X.__methods__ list of methods supported by X (if any)
- X.__members__ List of X's data attributes
if __name__ == '__main__': main() invoke main if running as script
map(None, lst1, lst2, ...) merge lists
b = a[:] create copy of seq structure
C-c | sends the current region
C-c ! starts a Python interpreter window; this will be used by
subsequent C-c C-c or C-c | commands
+C-c C-w runs PyChecker
+
VARIABLES
py-indent-offset indentation increment
py-block-comment-prefix comment string used by py-comment-region
can be printed or manipulated from debugger)
c, continue
continue until next breakpoint
+j, jump lineno
+ Set the next line that will be executed
a, args
print args to current function
rv, retval
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