Asynchronous Notifications
==========================
-A mechanism is provided to make asynchronous notifications to the the main
+A mechanism is provided to make asynchronous notifications to the main
interpreter thread. These notifications take the form of a function
pointer and a void argument.
.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyNumber_ToBase(PyObject *n, int base)
- Returns the the integer *n* converted to *base* as a string with a base
- marker of ``'0b'``, ``'0o'``, or ``'0x'`` if appended applicable. When
+ Returns the integer *n* converted to *base* as a string with a base
+ marker of ``'0b'``, ``'0o'``, or ``'0x'`` if applicable. When
*base* is not 2, 8, 10, or 16, the format is ``'x#num'`` where x is the
base. If *n* is not an int object, it is converted with
:cfunc:`PyNumber_Index` first.
expression ``o.attr_name``.
+.. cfunction:: PyObject* PyObject_GenericGetAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *name)
+
+ Generic attribute getter function that is meant to be put into a type
+ object's ``tp_getattro`` slot. It looks for a descriptor in the dictionary
+ of classes in the object's MRO as well as an attribute in the object's
+ :attr:`__dict__` (if present). As outlined in :ref:`descriptors`, data
+ descriptors take preference over instance attributes, while non-data
+ descriptors don't. Otherwise, an :exc:`AttributeError` is raised.
+
+
.. cfunction:: int PyObject_SetAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name, PyObject *v)
Set the value of the attribute named *attr_name*, for object *o*, to the value
``o.attr_name = v``.
+.. cfunction:: int PyObject_GenericSetAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *name, PyObject *value)
+
+ Generic attribute setter function that is meant to be put into a type
+ object's ``tp_setattro`` slot. It looks for a data descriptor in the
+ dictionary of classes in the object's MRO, and if found it takes preference
+ over setting the attribute in the instance dictionary. Otherwise, the
+ attribute is set in the object's :attr:`__dict__` (if present). Otherwise,
+ an :exc:`AttributeError` is raised and ``-1`` is returned.
+
+
.. cfunction:: int PyObject_DelAttr(PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name)
Delete attribute named *attr_name*, for object *o*. Returns ``-1`` on failure.
T_OBJECT_EX PyObject \*
T_CHAR char
T_BYTE char
- T_UNBYTE unsigned char
+ T_UBYTE unsigned char
T_UINT unsigned int
T_USHORT unsigned short
T_ULONG unsigned long
interpreter exits due to an exception, or ``2`` if the parameter
list does not represent a valid Python command line.
+ Note that if an otherwise unhandled :exc:`SystemError` is raised, this
+ function will not return ``1``, but exit the process, as long as
+ ``Py_InspectFlag`` is not set.
+
.. cfunction:: int PyRun_AnyFile(FILE *fp, const char *filename)
there was an error, there is no way to get the exception information. For the
meaning of *flags*, see below.
+ Note that if an otherwise unhandled :exc:`SystemError` is raised, this
+ function will not return ``-1``, but exit the process, as long as
+ ``Py_InspectFlag`` is not set.
+
.. cfunction:: int PyRun_SimpleFile(FILE *fp, const char *filename)
.. warning::
- Handles cross-device moves on Unix using :func:`copy_file`. What about other
- systems???
+ Handles cross-device moves on Unix using :func:`copy_file`. What about
+ other systems?
.. function:: write_file(filename, contents)
For non-POSIX platforms, currently just returns ``sys.platform``.
- For MacOS X systems the OS version reflects the minimal version on which
+ For Mac OS X systems the OS version reflects the minimal version on which
binaries will run (that is, the value of ``MACOSX_DEPLOYMENT_TARGET``
during the build of Python), not the OS version of the current system.
- For universal binary builds on MacOS X the architecture value reflects
+ For universal binary builds on Mac OS X the architecture value reflects
the univeral binary status instead of the architecture of the current
processor. For 32-bit universal binaries the architecture is ``fat``,
for 64-bit universal binaries the architecture is ``fat64``, and
for 4-way universal binaries the architecture is ``universal``.
- Examples of returned values on MacOS X:
+ Examples of returned values on Mac OS X:
* ``macosx-10.3-ppc``
.. module:: distutils.command.bdist_msi
:synopsis: Build a binary distribution as a Windows MSI file
+.. class:: bdist_msi(Command)
-.. % todo
+ Builds a `Windows Installer`_ (.msi) binary package.
+
+ .. _Windows Installer: http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc185688(VS.85).aspx
+
+ In most cases, the ``bdist_msi`` installer is a better choice than the
+ ``bdist_wininst`` installer, because it provides better support for
+ Win64 platforms, allows administrators to perform non-interactive
+ installations, and allows installation through group policies.
:mod:`distutils.command.bdist_rpm` --- Build a binary distribution as a Redhat RPM and SRPM
(but note that *temp* will not be *NULL* in this context). More info on them
in section :ref:`refcounts`.
-.. index:: single: PyEval_CallObject()
+.. index:: single: PyObject_CallObject()
Later, when it is time to call the function, you call the C function
-:cfunc:`PyEval_CallObject`. This function has two arguments, both pointers to
+:cfunc:`PyObject_CallObject`. This function has two arguments, both pointers to
arbitrary Python objects: the Python function, and the argument list. The
argument list must always be a tuple object, whose length is the number of
arguments. To call the Python function with no arguments, pass in NULL, or
...
/* Time to call the callback */
arglist = Py_BuildValue("(i)", arg);
- result = PyEval_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
+ result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
Py_DECREF(arglist);
-:cfunc:`PyEval_CallObject` returns a Python object pointer: this is the return
-value of the Python function. :cfunc:`PyEval_CallObject` is
+:cfunc:`PyObject_CallObject` returns a Python object pointer: this is the return
+value of the Python function. :cfunc:`PyObject_CallObject` is
"reference-count-neutral" with respect to its arguments. In the example a new
tuple was created to serve as the argument list, which is :cfunc:`Py_DECREF`\
-ed immediately after the call.
-The return value of :cfunc:`PyEval_CallObject` is "new": either it is a brand
+The return value of :cfunc:`PyObject_CallObject` is "new": either it is a brand
new object, or it is an existing object whose reference count has been
incremented. So, unless you want to save it in a global variable, you should
somehow :cfunc:`Py_DECREF` the result, even (especially!) if you are not
Before you do this, however, it is important to check that the return value
isn't *NULL*. If it is, the Python function terminated by raising an exception.
-If the C code that called :cfunc:`PyEval_CallObject` is called from Python, it
+If the C code that called :cfunc:`PyObject_CallObject` is called from Python, it
should now return an error indication to its Python caller, so the interpreter
can print a stack trace, or the calling Python code can handle the exception.
If this is not possible or desirable, the exception should be cleared by calling
Py_DECREF(result);
Depending on the desired interface to the Python callback function, you may also
-have to provide an argument list to :cfunc:`PyEval_CallObject`. In some cases
+have to provide an argument list to :cfunc:`PyObject_CallObject`. In some cases
the argument list is also provided by the Python program, through the same
interface that specified the callback function. It can then be saved and used
in the same manner as the function object. In other cases, you may have to
PyObject *arglist;
...
arglist = Py_BuildValue("(l)", eventcode);
- result = PyEval_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
+ result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist);
Py_DECREF(arglist);
if (result == NULL)
return NULL; /* Pass error back */
:cfunc:`Py_BuildValue` may run out of memory, and this should be checked.
You may also call a function with keyword arguments by using
-:cfunc:`PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords`. As in the above example, we use
-:cfunc:`Py_BuildValue` to construct the dictionary. ::
+:cfunc:`PyObject_Call`, which supports arguments and keyword arguments. As in
+the above example, we use :cfunc:`Py_BuildValue` to construct the dictionary. ::
PyObject *dict;
...
dict = Py_BuildValue("{s:i}", "name", val);
- result = PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords(my_callback, NULL, dict);
+ result = PyObject_Call(my_callback, NULL, dict);
Py_DECREF(dict);
if (result == NULL)
return NULL; /* Pass error back */
/* Here maybe use the result */
Py_DECREF(result);
+
.. _parsetuple:
Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
Python level, but actually corresponds to 2.x's :func:`long` type. In the
C-API, ``PyInt_*`` functions are replaced by their ``PyLong_*`` neighbors. The
best course of action here is using the ``PyInt_*`` functions aliased to
-``PyLong_*`` found in :file:`intobject.h`. The the abstract ``PyNumber_*`` APIs
+``PyLong_*`` found in :file:`intobject.h`. The abstract ``PyNumber_*`` APIs
can also be used in some cases. ::
#include "Python.h"
A class that has a metaclass derived from :class:`ABCMeta`
cannot be instantiated unless all of its abstract methods and
properties are overridden.
- The abstract methods can be called using any of the the normal 'super' call
+ The abstract methods can be called using any of the normal 'super' call
mechanisms.
Dynamically adding abstract methods to a class, or attempting to modify the
def setx(self, value): ...
x = abstractproperty(getx, setx)
+
.. rubric:: Footnotes
.. [#] C++ programmers should note that Python's virtual base class
from text files and modules with doctests:
-.. function:: DocFileSuite([module_relative][, package][, setUp][, tearDown][, globs][, optionflags][, parser][, encoding])
+.. function:: DocFileSuite(*paths, [module_relative][, package][, setUp][, tearDown][, globs][, optionflags][, parser][, encoding])
Convert doctest tests from one or more text files to a
:class:`unittest.TestSuite`.
Optional argument *module_relative* specifies how the filenames in *paths*
should be interpreted:
- * If *module_relative* is ``True`` (the default), then each filename specifies
- an OS-independent module-relative path. By default, this path is relative to
- the calling module's directory; but if the *package* argument is specified, then
- it is relative to that package. To ensure OS-independence, each filename should
- use ``/`` characters to separate path segments, and may not be an absolute path
- (i.e., it may not begin with ``/``).
-
- * If *module_relative* is ``False``, then each filename specifies an OS-specific
- path. The path may be absolute or relative; relative paths are resolved with
- respect to the current working directory.
-
- Optional argument *package* is a Python package or the name of a Python package
- whose directory should be used as the base directory for module-relative
- filenames. If no package is specified, then the calling module's directory is
- used as the base directory for module-relative filenames. It is an error to
- specify *package* if *module_relative* is ``False``.
-
- Optional argument *setUp* specifies a set-up function for the test suite. This
- is called before running the tests in each file. The *setUp* function will be
- passed a :class:`DocTest` object. The setUp function can access the test
- globals as the *globs* attribute of the test passed.
-
- Optional argument *tearDown* specifies a tear-down function for the test suite.
- This is called after running the tests in each file. The *tearDown* function
+ * If *module_relative* is ``True`` (the default), then each filename in
+ *paths* specifies an OS-independent module-relative path. By default, this
+ path is relative to the calling module's directory; but if the *package*
+ argument is specified, then it is relative to that package. To ensure
+ OS-independence, each filename should use ``/`` characters to separate path
+ segments, and may not be an absolute path (i.e., it may not begin with
+ ``/``).
+
+ * If *module_relative* is ``False``, then each filename in *paths* specifies
+ an OS-specific path. The path may be absolute or relative; relative paths
+ are resolved with respect to the current working directory.
+
+ Optional argument *package* is a Python package or the name of a Python
+ package whose directory should be used as the base directory for
+ module-relative filenames in *paths*. If no package is specified, then the
+ calling module's directory is used as the base directory for module-relative
+ filenames. It is an error to specify *package* if *module_relative* is
+ ``False``.
+
+ Optional argument *setUp* specifies a set-up function for the test suite.
+ This is called before running the tests in each file. The *setUp* function
will be passed a :class:`DocTest` object. The setUp function can access the
test globals as the *globs* attribute of the test passed.
+ Optional argument *tearDown* specifies a tear-down function for the test
+ suite. This is called after running the tests in each file. The *tearDown*
+ function will be passed a :class:`DocTest` object. The setUp function can
+ access the test globals as the *globs* attribute of the test passed.
+
Optional argument *globs* is a dictionary containing the initial global
variables for the tests. A new copy of this dictionary is created for each
test. By default, *globs* is a new empty dictionary.
Optional argument *optionflags* specifies the default doctest options for the
tests, created by or-ing together individual option flags. See section
- :ref:`doctest-options`. See function :func:`set_unittest_reportflags` below for
- a better way to set reporting options.
+ :ref:`doctest-options`. See function :func:`set_unittest_reportflags` below
+ for a better way to set reporting options.
- Optional argument *parser* specifies a :class:`DocTestParser` (or subclass) that
- should be used to extract tests from the files. It defaults to a normal parser
- (i.e., ``DocTestParser()``).
+ Optional argument *parser* specifies a :class:`DocTestParser` (or subclass)
+ that should be used to extract tests from the files. It defaults to a normal
+ parser (i.e., ``DocTestParser()``).
Optional argument *encoding* specifies an encoding that should be used to
convert the file to unicode.
Without arguments, return a dictionary corresponding to the current local symbol
table. With a module, class or class instance object as argument (or anything
else that has a :attr:`__dict__` attribute), returns a dictionary corresponding
- to the object's symbol table. The returned dictionary should not be modified:
- the effects on the corresponding symbol table are undefined. [#]_
+ to the object's symbol table.
+ .. warning::
+ The returned dictionary should not be modified:
+ the effects on the corresponding symbol table are undefined. [#]_
.. function:: zip(*iterables)
Make an iterator that filters elements from *data* returning only those that
have a corresponding element in *selectors* that evaluates to ``True``.
- Stops when either the *data* or *selectors* iterables have been exhausted.
+ Stops when either the *data* or *selectors* iterables has been exhausted.
Equivalent to::
def compress(data, selectors):
locks; there is one lock to serialize access to the module's shared data, and
each handler also creates a lock to serialize access to its underlying I/O.
+If you are implementing asynchronous signal handlers using the :mod:`signal`
+module, you may not be able to use logging from within such handlers. This is
+because lock implementations in the :mod:`threading` module are not always
+re-entrant, and so cannot be invoked from such signal handlers.
Configuration
-------------
.. method:: map(func, iterable[, chunksize])
- A parallel equivalent of the :func:`map` builtin function, collecting the
- result in a list. It blocks till the whole result is ready.
+ A parallel equivalent of the :func:`map` builtin function (it supports only
+ one *iterable* argument though). It blocks till the result is ready.
This method chops the iterable into a number of chunks which it submits to
the process pool as separate tasks. The (approximate) size of these
*address* is the address to be used by the bound socket or named pipe of the
listener object.
+ .. note::
+
+ If an address of '0.0.0.0' is used, the address will not be a connectable
+ end point on Windows. If you require a connectable end-point,
+ you should use '127.0.0.1'.
+
*family* is the type of socket (or named pipe) to use. This can be one of
the strings ``'AF_INET'`` (for a TCP socket), ``'AF_UNIX'`` (for a Unix
domain socket) or ``'AF_PIPE'`` (for a Windows named pipe). Of these only
any :class:`~multiprocessing.Process` object that the current process creates.
This means that (by default) all processes of a multi-process program will share
a single authentication key which can be used when setting up connections
-between the themselves.
+between themselves.
Suitable authentication keys can also be generated by using :func:`os.urandom`.
-
:mod:`os.path` --- Common pathname manipulations
================================================
.. module:: os.path
:synopsis: Operations on pathnames.
-
.. index:: single: path; operations
This module implements some useful functions on pathnames. To read or
:func:`splitunc` and :func:`ismount` do handle them correctly.
+.. note::
+
+ Since different operating systems have different path name conventions, there
+ are several versions of this module in the standard library. The
+ :mod:`os.path` module is always the path module suitable for the operating
+ system Python is running on, and therefore usable for local paths. However,
+ you can also import and use the individual modules if you want to manipulate
+ a path that is *always* in one of the different formats. They all have the
+ same interface:
+
+ * :mod:`posixpath` for UNIX-style paths
+ * :mod:`ntpath` for Windows paths
+ * :mod:`macpath` for old-style MacOS paths
+ * :mod:`os2emxpath` for OS/2 EMX paths
+
+
.. function:: abspath(path)
Return a normalized absolutized version of the pathname *path*. On most
.. function:: normcase(path)
- Normalize the case of a pathname. On Unix and MacOSX, this returns the path unchanged; on
- case-insensitive filesystems, it converts the path to lowercase. On Windows, it
- also converts forward slashes to backward slashes.
+ Normalize the case of a pathname. On Unix and Mac OS X, this returns the
+ path unchanged; on case-insensitive filesystems, it converts the path to
+ lowercase. On Windows, it also converts forward slashes to backward slashes.
.. function:: normpath(path)
``'ce'``, ``'java'``.
-.. data:: path
-
- The corresponding operating system dependent standard module for pathname
- operations, such as :mod:`posixpath` or :mod:`ntpath`. Thus, given the proper
- imports, ``os.path.split(file)`` is equivalent to but more portable than
- ``posixpath.split(file)``. Note that this is also an importable module: it may
- be imported directly as :mod:`os.path`.
-
-
.. _os-procinfo:
Process Parameters
which is used to define the environment variables for the new process (they are
used instead of the current process' environment); the functions
:func:`spawnl`, :func:`spawnlp`, :func:`spawnv`, and :func:`spawnvp` all cause
- the new process to inherit the environment of the current process.
+ the new process to inherit the environment of the current process. Note that
+ keys and values in the *env* dictionary must be strings; invalid keys or
+ values will cause the function to fail, with a return value of ``127``.
As an example, the following calls to :func:`spawnlp` and :func:`spawnvpe` are
equivalent::
full speed, only stopping at the next line in the current function.)
unt(il)
- Continue execution until the line with the the line number greater than the
+ Continue execution until the line with the line number greater than the
current one is reached or when returning from current frame.
r(eturn)
Refer to the section :ref:`pickle-state` for more information about how to use
the methods :meth:`__getstate__` and :meth:`__setstate__`.
+.. note::
+ At unpickling time, some methods like :meth:`__getattr__`,
+ :meth:`__getattribute__`, or :meth:`__setattr__` may be called upon the
+ instance. In case those methods rely on some internal invariant being
+ true, the type should implement either :meth:`__getinitargs__` or
+ :meth:`__getnewargs__` to establish such an invariant; otherwise, neither
+ :meth:`__new__` nor :meth:`__init__` will be called.
+
.. index::
pair: copy; protocol
single: __reduce__() (copy protocol)
.. sectionauthor:: Andrew M. Kuchling <amk@amk.ca>
-
-
This module provides regular expression matching operations similar to
-those found in Perl. The :mod:`re` module is always available.
+those found in Perl. Both patterns and strings to be searched can be
+Unicode strings as well as 8-bit strings.
Both patterns and strings to be searched can be Unicode strings as well as
8-bit strings. However, Unicode strings and 8-bit strings cannot be mixed:
second edition of the book no longer covers Python at all, but the first
edition covered writing good regular expression patterns in great detail.
- `Kodos <http://kodos.sf.net/>`_
- is a graphical regular expression debugger written in Python.
-
.. _re-syntax:
``(?P<name>...)``
Similar to regular parentheses, but the substring matched by the group is
- accessible via the symbolic group name *name*. Group names must be valid Python
- identifiers, and each group name must be defined only once within a regular
- expression. A symbolic group is also a numbered group, just as if the group
- were not named. So the group named 'id' in the example below can also be
- referenced as the numbered group 1.
+ accessible within the rest of the regular expression via the symbolic group
+ name *name*. Group names must be valid Python identifiers, and each group
+ name must be defined only once within a regular expression. A symbolic group
+ is also a numbered group, just as if the group were not named. So the group
+ named ``id`` in the example below can also be referenced as the numbered group
+ ``1``.
For example, if the pattern is ``(?P<id>[a-zA-Z_]\w*)``, the group can be
referenced by its name in arguments to methods of match objects, such as
- ``m.group('id')`` or ``m.end('id')``, and also by name in pattern text (for
- example, ``(?P=id)``) and replacement text (such as ``\g<id>``).
+ ``m.group('id')`` or ``m.end('id')``, and also by name in the regular
+ expression itself (using ``(?P=id)``) and replacement text given to
+ ``.sub()`` (using ``\g<id>``).
``(?P=name)``
Matches whatever text was matched by the earlier group named *name*.
# as d was opened WITHOUT writeback=True, beware:
d['xx'] = range(4) # this works as expected, but...
- d['xx'].append(5) # *this doesn't!* -- d['xx'] is STILL range(4)!!!
+ d['xx'].append(5) # *this doesn't!* -- d['xx'] is STILL range(4)!
# having opened d without writeback=True, you need to code carefully:
temp = d['xx'] # extracts the copy
Server Objects
--------------
+.. class:: BaseServer
-.. function:: fileno()
+ This is the superclass of all Server objects in the module. It defines the
+ interface, given below, but does not implement most of the methods, which is
+ done in subclasses.
+
+
+.. method:: BaseServer.fileno()
Return an integer file descriptor for the socket on which the server is
listening. This function is most commonly passed to :func:`select.select`, to
allow monitoring multiple servers in the same process.
-.. function:: handle_request()
+.. method:: BaseServer.handle_request()
Process a single request. This function calls the following methods in
order: :meth:`get_request`, :meth:`verify_request`, and
will return.
-.. function:: serve_forever(poll_interval=0.5)
+.. method:: BaseServer.serve_forever(poll_interval=0.5)
Handle requests until an explicit :meth:`shutdown` request. Polls for
shutdown every *poll_interval* seconds.
-.. function:: shutdown()
+.. method:: BaseServer.shutdown()
Tells the :meth:`serve_forever` loop to stop and waits until it does.
-.. data:: address_family
+.. attribute:: BaseServer.address_family
The family of protocols to which the server's socket belongs.
Common examples are :const:`socket.AF_INET` and :const:`socket.AF_UNIX`.
-.. data:: RequestHandlerClass
+.. attribute:: BaseServer.RequestHandlerClass
The user-provided request handler class; an instance of this class is created
for each request.
-.. data:: server_address
+.. attribute:: BaseServer.server_address
The address on which the server is listening. The format of addresses varies
depending on the protocol family; see the documentation for the socket module
the address, and an integer port number: ``('127.0.0.1', 80)``, for example.
-.. data:: socket
+.. attribute:: BaseServer.socket
The socket object on which the server will listen for incoming requests.
+
The server classes support the following class variables:
.. XXX should class variables be covered before instance variables, or vice versa?
-
-.. data:: allow_reuse_address
+.. attribute:: BaseServer.allow_reuse_address
Whether the server will allow the reuse of an address. This defaults to
:const:`False`, and can be set in subclasses to change the policy.
-.. data:: request_queue_size
+.. attribute:: BaseServer.request_queue_size
The size of the request queue. If it takes a long time to process a single
request, any requests that arrive while the server is busy are placed into a
value is usually 5, but this can be overridden by subclasses.
-.. data:: socket_type
+.. attribute:: BaseServer.socket_type
The type of socket used by the server; :const:`socket.SOCK_STREAM` and
:const:`socket.SOCK_DGRAM` are two common values.
-.. data:: timeout
+
+.. attribute:: BaseServer.timeout
Timeout duration, measured in seconds, or :const:`None` if no timeout is
desired. If :meth:`handle_request` receives no incoming requests within the
timeout period, the :meth:`handle_timeout` method is called.
+
There are various server methods that can be overridden by subclasses of base
server classes like :class:`TCPServer`; these methods aren't useful to external
users of the server object.
.. XXX should the default implementations of these be documented, or should
it be assumed that the user will look at socketserver.py?
-
-.. function:: finish_request()
+.. method:: BaseServer.finish_request()
Actually processes the request by instantiating :attr:`RequestHandlerClass` and
calling its :meth:`handle` method.
-.. function:: get_request()
+.. method:: BaseServer.get_request()
Must accept a request from the socket, and return a 2-tuple containing the *new*
socket object to be used to communicate with the client, and the client's
address.
-.. function:: handle_error(request, client_address)
+.. method:: BaseServer.handle_error(request, client_address)
This function is called if the :attr:`RequestHandlerClass`'s :meth:`handle`
method raises an exception. The default action is to print the traceback to
standard output and continue handling further requests.
-.. function:: handle_timeout()
+
+.. method:: BaseServer.handle_timeout()
This function is called when the :attr:`timeout` attribute has been set to a
value other than :const:`None` and the timeout period has passed with no
to collect the status of any child processes that have exited, while
in threading servers this method does nothing.
-.. function:: process_request(request, client_address)
+
+.. method:: BaseServer.process_request(request, client_address)
Calls :meth:`finish_request` to create an instance of the
:attr:`RequestHandlerClass`. If desired, this function can create a new process
or thread to handle the request; the :class:`ForkingMixIn` and
:class:`ThreadingMixIn` classes do this.
+
.. Is there any point in documenting the following two functions?
What would the purpose of overriding them be: initializing server
instance variables, adding new network families?
-
-.. function:: server_activate()
+.. method:: BaseServer.server_activate()
Called by the server's constructor to activate the server. The default behavior
just :meth:`listen`\ s to the server's socket. May be overridden.
-.. function:: server_bind()
+.. method:: BaseServer.server_bind()
Called by the server's constructor to bind the socket to the desired address.
May be overridden.
-.. function:: verify_request(request, client_address)
+.. method:: BaseServer.verify_request(request, client_address)
Must return a Boolean value; if the value is :const:`True`, the request will be
processed, and if it's :const:`False`, the request will be denied. This function
request.
-.. function:: finish()
+.. method:: RequestHandler.finish()
Called after the :meth:`handle` method to perform any clean-up actions
required. The default implementation does nothing. If :meth:`setup` or
:meth:`handle` raise an exception, this function will not be called.
-.. function:: handle()
+.. method:: RequestHandler.handle()
This function must do all the work required to service a request. The
default implementation does nothing. Several instance attributes are
data or return data to the client.
-.. function:: setup()
+.. method:: RequestHandler.setup()
Called before the :meth:`handle` method to perform any initialization actions
required. The default implementation does nothing.
If there is no certificate for the peer on the other end of the
connection, returns ``None``.
- If the the parameter ``binary_form`` is :const:`False`, and a
+ If the parameter ``binary_form`` is :const:`False`, and a
certificate was received from the peer, this method returns a
:class:`dict` instance. If the certificate was not validated, the
dict is empty. If the certificate was validated, it returns a dict
Equivalent to ``not key in d``.
+ .. describe:: iter(d)
+
+ Return an iterator over the keys of the dictionary. This is a shortcut
+ for :meth:`iterkeys`.
+
.. method:: clear()
Remove all items from the dictionary.
using :func:`zip`: ``pairs = zip(d.values(), d.keys())``. Another way to
create the same list is ``pairs = [(v, k) for (k, v) in d.items()]``.
+ Iterating views while adding or deleting entries in the dictionary will raise
+ a :exc:`RuntimeError`.
+
.. describe:: x in dictview
Return ``True`` if *x* is in the underlying dictionary's keys, values or
The name of the class or type.
+The following attributes are only supported by :term:`new-style class`\ es.
+
+.. attribute:: class.__mro__
+
+ This attribute is a tuple of classes that are considered when looking for
+ base classes during method resolution.
+
+
+.. method:: class.mro()
+
+ This method can be overridden by a metaclass to customize the method
+ resolution order for its instances. It is called at class instantiation, and
+ its result is stored in :attr:`__mro__`.
+
+
.. method:: class.__subclasses__
- All classes keep a list of weak references to their immediate subclasses.
- This method returns a list of all those references still alive. Example::
+ Each new-style class keeps a list of weak references to its immediate
+ subclasses. This method returns a list of all those references still alive.
+ Example::
>>> int.__subclasses__()
[<type 'bool'>]
__stderr__
These objects contain the original values of ``stdin``, ``stderr`` and
- ``stdout`` at the start of the program. They are used during finalization, and
- could be useful to restore the actual files to known working file objects in
- case they have been overwritten with a broken object.
+ ``stdout`` at the start of the program. They are used during finalization,
+ and could be useful to print to the actual standard stream no matter if the
+ ``sys.std*`` object has been redirected.
- .. note::
+ It can also be used to restore the actual files to known working file objects
+ in case they have been overwritten with a broken object. However, the
+ preferred way to do this is to explicitly save the previous stream before
+ replacing it, and restore the saved object.
- Under some conditions ``stdin``, ``stdout`` and ``stderr`` as well as the
- original values ``__stdin__``, ``__stdout__`` and ``__stderr__`` can be
- None. It is usually the case for Windows GUI apps that aren't connected to
- a console and Python apps started with :program:`pythonw`.
+ .. note::
+ Under some conditions ``stdin``, ``stdout`` and ``stderr`` as well as the
+ original values ``__stdin__``, ``__stdout__`` and ``__stderr__`` can be
+ None. It is usually the case for Windows GUI apps that aren't connected
+ to a console and Python apps started with :program:`pythonw`.
.. data:: tracebacklimit
.. method:: Event.wait([timeout])
- Block until the internal flag is true. If the internal flag is true on entry,
- return immediately. Otherwise, block until another thread calls :meth:`set` to
- set the flag to true, or until the optional timeout occurs.
+ Block until the internal flag is true. If the internal flag is true on entry,
+ return immediately. Otherwise, block until another thread calls :meth:`set`
+ to set the flag to true, or until the optional timeout occurs.
When the timeout argument is present and not ``None``, it should be a floating
point number specifying a timeout for the operation in seconds (or fractions
thereof).
+ This method returns the internal flag on exit, so it will always return
+ ``True`` except if a timeout is given and the operation times out.
+
+ .. versionchanged:: 2.7
+ Previously, the method always returned ``None``.
+
.. _timer-objects:
ttk.Widget
^^^^^^^^^^
-Besides the methods described below, the class :class:`ttk.Widget` supports the
+Besides the methods described below, the :class:`ttk.Widget` supports the
methods :meth:`tkinter.Widget.cget` and :meth:`tkinter.Widget.configure`.
.. class:: Widget
The tab will not be displayed, but the associated window remains
managed by the notebook and its configuration remembered. Hidden tabs
- may be restored with the add command.
+ may be restored with the :meth:`add` command.
.. method:: identify(x, y)
Inserts a pane at the specified position.
- *pos* is either the string end, an integer index, or the name of a
+ *pos* is either the string "end", an integer index, or the name of a
managed child. If *child* is already managed by the notebook, moves it to
the specified position.
Query or modify the options of the specific *tab_id*.
- If *kw* is not given, returns a dict of the tab option values. If
+ If *kw* is not given, returns a dictionary of the tab option values. If
*option* is specified, returns the value of that *option*. Otherwise,
sets the options to the corresponding values.
This will extend the bindings for the toplevel window containing the
notebook as follows:
- * Control-Tab: selects the tab following the currently selected one
- * Shift-Control-Tab: selects the tab preceding the currently selected one
+ * Control-Tab: selects the tab following the currently selected one.
+ * Shift-Control-Tab: selects the tab preceding the currently selected one.
* Alt-K: where K is the mnemonic (underlined) character of any tab, will
select that tab.
Multiple notebooks in a single toplevel may be enabled for traversal,
including nested notebooks. However, notebook traversal only works
- properly if all panes have as master the notebook they are in.
+ properly if all panes have the notebook they are in as master.
Progressbar
+----------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| value | The current value of the progress bar. In "determinate" mode, |
| | this represents the amount of work completed. In |
- | | "indeterminate" mode, it is interpreted as modulo maximum; |
+ | | "indeterminate" mode, it is interpreted as modulo *maximum*; |
| | that is, the progress bar completes one "cycle" when its value|
- | | increases by maximum. |
+ | | increases by *maximum*. |
+----------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| variable | A name which is linked to the option value. If specified, the |
- | | value of the progressbar is automatically set to the value of |
+ | | value of the progress bar is automatically set to the value of|
| | this name whenever the latter is modified. |
+----------+---------------------------------------------------------------+
| phase | Read-only option. The widget periodically increments the value|
.. method:: start([interval])
- Begin autoincrement mode: schedules a recurring timer even that calls
+ Begin autoincrement mode: schedules a recurring timer event that calls
:meth:`Progressbar.step` every *interval* milliseconds. If omitted,
*interval* defaults to 50 milliseconds.
.. method:: step([amount])
- Increments progressbar's value by *amount*.
+ Increments the progress bar's value by *amount*.
*amount* defaults to 1.0 if omitted.
.. method:: stop()
Stop autoincrement mode: cancels any recurring timer event initiated by
- :meth:`Progressbar.start` for this progressbar.
+ :meth:`Progressbar.start` for this progress bar.
Separator
The :class:`ttk.Separator` widget displays a horizontal or vertical separator
bar.
-It has no other method besides the ones inherited from :class:`ttk.Widget`.
+It has no other methods besides the ones inherited from :class:`ttk.Widget`.
Options
Sizegrip
--------
-The :class:`ttk.Sizegrip` widget (also known as grow box) allows the user to
+The :class:`ttk.Sizegrip` widget (also known as a grow box) allows the user to
resize the containing toplevel window by pressing and dragging the grip.
-This widget has no specific options neither specific methods, besides the
+This widget has neither specific options nor specific methods, besides the
ones inherited from :class:`ttk.Widget`.
Platform-specific notes
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-* On Mac OSX, toplevel windows automatically include a built-in size grip
- by default. Adding a Sizegrip there is harmless, since the built-in
+* On MacOS X, toplevel windows automatically include a built-in size grip
+ by default. Adding a :class:`Sizegrip` is harmless, since the built-in
grip will just mask the widget.
^^^^
* If the containing toplevel's position was specified relative to the right
- or bottom of the screen (e.g. ....), the Sizegrip widget will not resize
- the window.
+ or bottom of the screen (e.g. ....), the :class:`Sizegrip` widget will
+ not resize the window.
* This widget supports only "southeast" resizing.
label.
The order in which data values are displayed may be controlled by setting
-the widget option displaycolumns. The tree widget can also display column
+the widget option ``displaycolumns``. The tree widget can also display column
headings. Columns may be accessed by number or symbolic names listed in the
widget option columns. See `Column Identifiers`_.
Each item is identified by an unique name. The widget will generate item IDs
if they are not supplied by the caller. There is a distinguished root item,
-named {}. The root item itself is not displayed; its children appear at the
+named ``{}``. The root item itself is not displayed; its children appear at the
top level of the hierarchy.
-Each item also has a list of tags, which can be used to associate even bindings
+Each item also has a list of tags, which can be used to associate event bindings
with individual items and control the appearance of the item.
The Treeview widget supports horizontal and vertical scrolling, according to
Options
^^^^^^^
-This widget accepts the following specific option:
+This widget accepts the following specific options:
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
| option | description |
| | be changed. |
| | |
| | Note that the application code and tag bindings can set|
- | | the selection however they wish, regardless the value |
- | | of this option. |
+ | | the selection however they wish, regardless of the |
+ | | value of this option. |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
| show | A list containing zero or more of the following values,|
| | specifying which elements of the tree to display. |
| | The default is "tree headings", i.e., show all |
| | elements. |
| | |
- | | **Note**: Column #0 always refer to the tree column, |
+ | | **Note**: Column #0 always refers to the tree column, |
| | even if show="tree" is not specified. |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
.. method:: set_children(item, *newchildren)
- Replaces item's child with *newchildren*.
+ Replaces *item*'s child with *newchildren*.
- Children present in item that are not present in *newchildren* are
- detached from tree. No items in *newchildren* may be an ancestor of
- item. Note that not specifying *newchildren* results in detaching
+ Children present in *item* that are not present in *newchildren* are
+ detached from the tree. No items in *newchildren* may be an ancestor of
+ *item*. Note that not specifying *newchildren* results in detaching
*item*'s children.
The valid options/values are:
* id
- Returns the column name, this is a read-only option.
+ Returns the column name. This is a read-only option.
* anchor: One of the standard Tk anchor values.
Specifies how the text in this column should be aligned with respect
to the cell.
* minwidth: width
The minimum width of the column in pixels. The treeview widget will
- not make the column any smaller than the specified by this option when
+ not make the column any smaller than specified by this option when
the widget is resized or the user drags a column.
* stretch: True/False
- Specifies wheter or not the column's width should be adjusted when
+ Specifies whether the column's width should be adjusted when
the widget is resized.
* width: width
The width of the column in pixels.
.. method:: exists(item)
- Returns True if the specified *item* is present in the three,
- False otherwise.
+ Returns True if the specified *item* is present in the tree.
.. method:: focus([item=None])
* command: callback
A callback to be invoked when the heading label is pressed.
- To configure the tree column heading, call this with column = "#0"
+ To configure the tree column heading, call this with column = "#0".
.. method:: identify(component, x, y)
.. method:: identify_element(x, y)
- Returns the element at position x, y.
+ Returns the element at position *x*, *y*.
Availability: Tk 8.6.
.. method:: insert(parent, index[, iid=None[, **kw]])
- Creates a new item and return the item identifier of the newly created
+ Creates a new item and returns the item identifier of the newly created
item.
*parent* is the item ID of the parent item, or the empty string to create
a new top-level item. *index* is an integer, or the value "end",
specifying where in the list of parent's children to insert the new item.
If *index* is less than or equal to zero, the new node is inserted at
- the beginning, if *index* is greater than or equal to the current number
+ the beginning; if *index* is greater than or equal to the current number
of children, it is inserted at the end. If *iid* is specified, it is used
- as the item identifier, *iid* must not already exist in the tree.
+ as the item identifier; *iid* must not already exist in the tree.
Otherwise, a new unique identifier is generated.
See `Item Options`_ for the list of available points.
Moves *item* to position *index* in *parent*'s list of children.
- It is illegal to move an item under one of its descendants. If index is
- less than or equal to zero, item is moved to the beginning, if greater
- than or equal to the number of children, it is moved to the end. If item
+ It is illegal to move an item under one of its descendants. If *index* is
+ less than or equal to zero, *item* is moved to the beginning; if greater
+ than or equal to the number of children, it is moved to the end. If *item*
was detached it is reattached.
.. method:: tag_bind(tagname[, sequence=None[, callback=None]])
Bind a callback for the given event *sequence* to the tag *tagname*.
- When an event is delivered to an item, the *callbacks* for each of the
+ When an event is delivered to an item, the callbacks for each of the
item's tags option are called.
If *item* is specified, returns 1 or 0 depending on whether the specified
*item* has the given *tagname*. Otherwise, returns a list of all items
- which have the specified tag.
+ that have the specified tag.
Availability: Tk 8.6
.. method:: configure(style, query_opt=None, **kw)
- Query or sets the default value of the specified option(s) in *style*.
+ Query or set the default value of the specified option(s) in *style*.
Each key in *kw* is an option and each value is a string identifying
the value for that option.
Query or sets dynamic values of the specified option(s) in *style*.
- Each key in kw is an option and each value should be a list or a
- tuple (usually) containing statespecs grouped in tuples, or list, or
- something else of your preference. A statespec is compound of one or more
- states and then a value.
+ Each key in *kw* is an option and each value should be a list or a
+ tuple (usually) containing statespecs grouped in tuples, lists, or
+ something else of your preference. A statespec is a compound of one
+ or more states and then a value.
An example may make it more understandable::
root.mainloop()
- There is a thing to note in this previous short example:
-
- * The order of the (states, value) sequences for an option does matter,
- if you changed the order to [('active', 'blue'), ('pressed', 'red')]
- in the foreground option, for example, you would get a blue foreground
- when the widget were in active or pressed states.
+ Note that the order of the (states, value) sequences for an option does
+ matter, if you changed the order to ``[('active', 'blue'), ('pressed',
+ 'red')]`` in the foreground option, for example, you would get a blue
+ foreground when the widget were in active or pressed states.
.. method:: lookup(style, option[, state=None[, default=None]])
Define the widget layout for given *style*. If *layoutspec* is omitted,
return the layout specification for given style.
- *layoutspec*, if specified, is expected to be a list, or some other
- sequence type (excluding string), where each item should be a tuple and
+ *layoutspec*, if specified, is expected to be a list or some other
+ sequence type (excluding strings), where each item should be a tuple and
the first item is the layout name and the second item should have the
format described described in `Layouts`_.
- To understand the format, check this example below (it is not intended
- to do anything useful)::
+ To understand the format, see the following example (it is not
+ intended to do anything useful)::
from tkinter import ttk
import tkinter
.. method:: element_create(elementname, etype, *args, **kw)
- Create a new element in the current theme of given *etype* which is
+ Create a new element in the current theme, of the given *etype* which is
expected to be either "image", "from" or "vsapi". The latter is only
available in Tk 8.6a for Windows XP and Vista and is not described here.
If "image" is used, *args* should contain the default image name followed
- by statespec/value pairs (this is the imagespec), *kw* may have the
+ by statespec/value pairs (this is the imagespec), and *kw* may have the
following options:
* border=padding
Specifies a minimum width for the element. If less than zero, the
base image's width is used as a default.
- But if "from" is used, then :meth:`element_create` will clone an existing
- element. *args* is expected to contain a themename, which is from where
+ If "from" is used as the value of *etype*,
+ :meth:`element_create` will clone an existing
+ element. *args* is expected to contain a themename, from which
the element will be cloned, and optionally an element to clone from.
If this element to clone from is not specified, an empty element will
- be used. *kw* is discarded here.
+ be used. *kw* is discarded.
.. method:: element_names()
:meth:`Style.configure`, :meth:`Style.map`, :meth:`Style.layout` and
:meth:`Style.element_create` respectively.
- As an example, lets change the Combobox for the default theme a bit::
+ As an example, let's change the Combobox for the default theme a bit::
from tkinter import ttk
import tkinter
.. method:: theme_use([themename])
- If *themename* is not given, returns the theme in use, otherwise, set
+ If *themename* is not given, returns the theme in use. Otherwise, sets
the current theme to *themename*, refreshes all widgets and emits a
<<ThemeChanged>> event.
Layouts
^^^^^^^
-A layout can be just None, if takes no options, or a dict of options specifying
-how to arrange the element. The layout mechanism uses a simplified
-version of the pack geometry manager: given an initial cavity, each element is
-allocated a parcel. Valid options/values are:
+A layout can be just None, if it takes no options, or a dict of
+options specifying how to arrange the element. The layout mechanism
+uses a simplified version of the pack geometry manager: given an
+initial cavity, each element is allocated a parcel. Valid
+options/values are:
* side: whichside
- Specifies which side of the cavity to place the the element; one of
+ Specifies which side of the cavity to place the element; one of
top, right, bottom or left. If omitted, the element occupies the
entire cavity.
commonly used to determine if a redirect was followed
* :meth:`info` --- return the meta-information of the page, such as headers,
- in the form of an ``http.client.HTTPMessage`` instance (see `Quick
+ in the form of an :class:`http.client.HTTPMessage` instance (see `Quick
Reference to HTTP Headers <http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/http.html>`_)
Raises :exc:`URLError` on errors.
under many window managers this will occur regardless of the setting of this
variable).
+ Note that on some platforms, trying to open a filename using this function,
+ may work and start the operating system's associated program. However, this
+ is neither supported nor portable.
+
.. function:: open_new(url)
*key* is the predefined handle to connect to.
- The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an
- :exc:`EnvironmentError` exception is raised.
+ The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, a
+ :exc:`WindowsError` exception is raised.
.. function:: CreateKey(key, sub_key)
If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key.
- The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an
- :exc:`EnvironmentError` exception is raised.
+ The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, a
+ :exc:`WindowsError` exception is raised.
.. function:: DeleteKey(key, sub_key)
*This method can not delete keys with subkeys.*
If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its values, is removed.
- If the method fails, an :exc:`EnvironmentError` exception is raised.
+ If the method fails, a :exc:`WindowsError` exception is raised.
.. function:: DeleteValue(key, value)
*index* is an integer that identifies the index of the key to retrieve.
The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is called. It is
- typically called repeatedly until an :exc:`EnvironmentError` exception is
+ typically called repeatedly until a :exc:`WindowsError` exception is
raised, indicating, no more values are available.
*index* is an integer that identifies the index of the value to retrieve.
The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is called. It is
- typically called repeatedly, until an :exc:`EnvironmentError` exception is
+ typically called repeatedly, until a :exc:`WindowsError` exception is
raised, indicating no more values.
The result is a tuple of 3 items:
The result is a new handle to the specified key.
- If the function fails, :exc:`EnvironmentError` is raised.
+ If the function fails, :exc:`WindowsError` is raised.
.. function:: OpenKeyEx()
associated. If this parameter is ``None`` or empty, the function retrieves the
value set by the :func:`SetValue` method for the key identified by *key*.
- Values in the registry have name, type, and data components. This method
+ Values in the registry have name, type, and data components. This method
retrieves the data for a key's first value that has a NULL name. But the
- underlying API call doesn't return the type, Lame Lame Lame, DO NOT USE THIS!!!
+ underlying API call doesn't return the type, so always use
+ :func:`QueryValueEx` if possible.
.. function:: QueryValueEx(key, value_name)
they may be garbage-collected. An implementation is allowed to postpone garbage
collection or omit it altogether --- it is a matter of implementation quality
how garbage collection is implemented, as long as no objects are collected that
-are still reachable. (Implementation note: the current implementation uses a
+are still reachable. (Implementation note: CPython currently uses a
reference-counting scheme with (optional) delayed detection of cyclically linked
garbage, which collects most objects as soon as they become unreachable, but is
not guaranteed to collect garbage containing circular references. See the
documentation of the :mod:`gc` module for information on controlling the
-collection of cyclic garbage.)
+collection of cyclic garbage. Other implementations act differently and CPython
+may change.)
Note that the use of the implementation's tracing or debugging facilities may
keep objects alive that would normally be collectable. Also note that catching
>>> x, y, z = t
-This is called, appropriately enough, *sequence unpacking*. Sequence unpacking
-requires the list of variables on the left to have the same number of elements
-as the length of the sequence. Note that multiple assignment is really just a
-combination of tuple packing and sequence unpacking!
-
-There is a small bit of asymmetry here: packing multiple values always creates
-a tuple, and unpacking works for any sequence.
+This is called, appropriately enough, *sequence unpacking* and works for any
+sequence on the right-hand side. Sequence unpacking requires the list of
+variables on the left to have the same number of elements as the length of the
+sequence. Note that multiple assignment is really just a combination of tuple
+packing and sequence unpacking.
.. XXX Add a bit on the difference between tuples and lists.
several lines of text just as you would do in C.
Note that whitespace at the beginning of the line is significant.
-If we make the string literal a "raw" string, however, the ``\n`` sequences are
-not converted to newlines, but the backslash at the end of the line, and the
-newline character in the source, are both included in the string as data. Thus,
-the example::
+If we make the string literal a "raw" string, ``\n`` sequences are not converted
+to newlines, but the backslash at the end of the line, and the newline character
+in the source, are both included in the string as data. Thus, the example::
hello = r"This is a rather long string containing\n\
several lines of text much as you would do in C."
This is a rather long string containing\n\
several lines of text much as you would do in C.
-Or, strings can be surrounded in a pair of matching triple-quotes: ``"""`` or
-``'''``. End of lines do not need to be escaped when using triple-quotes, but
-they will be included in the string. ::
-
- print("""
- Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
- -h Display this usage message
- -H hostname Hostname to connect to
- """)
-
-produces the following output::
-
- Usage: thingy [OPTIONS]
- -h Display this usage message
- -H hostname Hostname to connect to
-
+The interpreter prints the result of string operations in the same way as they
+are typed for input: inside quotes, and with quotes and other funny characters
+escaped by backslashes, to show the precise value. The string is enclosed in
+double quotes if the string contains a single quote and no double quotes, else
+it's enclosed in single quotes. (The :func:`print` function, described later,
+can be used to write strings without quotes or escapes.)
Strings can be concatenated (glued together) with the ``+`` operator, and
repeated with ``*``::
.. ========================================================================
.. Large, PEP-level features and changes should be described here.
-.. Should there be a new section here for 3k migration?
-.. Or perhaps a more general section describing module changes/deprecation?
.. ========================================================================
Python 3.0
:attr:`__self__`, and :attr:`im_func` is also available as :attr:`__func__`.
The old names are still supported in Python 2.6, but are gone in 3.0.
-* An obscure change: when you use the the :func:`locals` function inside a
+* An obscure change: when you use the :func:`locals` function inside a
:keyword:`class` statement, the resulting dictionary no longer returns free
variables. (Free variables, in this case, are variables referenced in the
:keyword:`class` statement that aren't attributes of the class.)
:Release: |release|
:Date: |today|
-.. Fix accents on Kristjan Valur Jonsson, Fuerstenau.
+.. Fix accents on Kristjan Valur Jonsson, Fuerstenau, Tarek Ziade.
.. $Id$
Rules for maintenance:
.. Compare with previous release in 2 - 3 sentences here.
add hyperlink when the documentation becomes available online.
+Python 3.1
+================
+
+Much as Python 2.6 incorporated features from Python 3.0,
+version 2.7 is influenced by features from 3.1.
+
+XXX mention importlib; anything else?
+
+One porting change: the :option:`-3` switch now automatically
+enables the :option:`-Qwarn` switch that causes warnings
+about using classic division with integers and long integers.
+
.. ========================================================================
.. Large, PEP-level features and changes should be described here.
-.. Should there be a new section here for 3k migration?
-.. Or perhaps a more general section describing module changes/deprecation?
.. ========================================================================
+PEP 372: Adding an ordered dictionary to collections
+====================================================
+
+XXX write this
+
+Several modules will now use :class:`OrderedDict` by default. The
+:mod:`ConfigParser` module uses :class:`OrderedDict` for the list
+of sections and the options within a section.
+The :meth:`namedtuple._asdict` method returns an :class:`OrderedDict`
+as well.
Other Language Changes
(Contributed by Fredrik Johansson and Victor Stinner; :issue:`3439`.)
+* The :class:`bytearray` type's :meth:`translate` method will
+ now accept None as its first argument. (Fixed by Georg Brandl;
+ :issue:`4759`.)
+
+.. ======================================================================
+
+
+Optimizations
+-------------
+
+Several performance enhancements have been added:
+
+.. * A new :program:`configure` option, :option:`--with-computed-gotos`,
+ compiles the main bytecode interpreter loop using a new dispatch
+ mechanism that gives speedups of up to 20%, depending on the system
+ and benchmark. The new mechanism is only supported on certain
+ compilers, such as gcc, SunPro, and icc.
+
+* The garbage collector now performs better when many objects are
+ being allocated without deallocating any. A full garbage collection
+ pass is only performed when the middle generation has been collected
+ 10 times and when the number of survivor objects from the middle
+ generation exceeds 10% of the number of objects in the oldest
+ generation. The second condition was added to reduce the number
+ of full garbage collections as the number of objects on the heap grows,
+ avoiding quadratic performance when allocating very many objects.
+ (Suggested by Martin von Loewis and implemented by Antoine Pitrou;
+ :issue:`4074`.)
+
+* The garbage collector tries to avoid tracking simple containers
+ which can't be part of a cycle. In Python 2.7, this is now true for
+ tuples and dicts containing atomic types (such as ints, strings,
+ etc.). Transitively, a dict containing tuples of atomic types won't
+ be tracked either. This helps reduce the cost of each
+ garbage collection by decreasing the number of objects to be
+ considered and traversed by the collector.
+ (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`4688`.)
* Integers are now stored internally either in base 2**15 or in base
2**30, the base being determined at build time. Previously, they
benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed. Therefore,
the default is to use base 2**30 on 64-bit machines and base 2**15
on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there's a new configure option
- --enable-big-digits that can be used to override this default.
+ :option:`--enable-big-digits` that can be used to override this default.
Apart from the performance improvements this change should be
invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and
>>> sys.long_info
sys.long_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4)
-
(Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`4258`.)
+ Another set of changes made long objects a few bytes smaller: 2 bytes
+ smaller on 32-bit systems and 6 bytes on 64-bit.
+ (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`5260`.)
-.. ======================================================================
-
+* The division algorithm for long integers has been made faster
+ by tightening the inner loop, doing shifts instead of multiplications,
+ and fixing an unnecessary extra iteration.
+ Various benchmarks show speedups of between 50% and 150% for long
+ integer divisions and modulo operations.
+ (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`5512`.)
-Optimizations
--------------
-
-A few performance enhancements have been added:
-
-* The garbage collector now performs better when many objects are
- being allocated without deallocating any. A full garbage collection
- pass is only performed when the middle generation has been collected
- 10 times and when the number of survivor objects from the middle
- generation exceeds 10% of the number of objects in the oldest
- generation. The second condition was added to reduce the number
- of full garbage collections as the number of objects on the heap grows,
- avoiding quadratic performance when allocating very many objects.
- (Suggested by Martin von Loewis and implemented by Antoine Pitrou;
- :issue:`4074`.)
-
-* The garbage collector tries to avoid tracking simple containers which
- can't be part of a cycle. As of now, this is true for tuples and dicts
- containing atomic types (such as ints, strings, etc.). Transitively, a dict
- containing tuples of atomic types won't be tracked either. This helps bring
- down the individual cost of each garbage collection, since it decreases the
- number of objects to be considered and traversed by the collector.
-
- To help diagnosing this optimization, a new function in the :mod:`gc`
- module, :func:`is_tracked`, returns True if a given instance is tracked
- by the garbage collector, False otherwise.
- (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`4688`.)
+* The implementation of ``%`` checks for the left-side operand being
+ a Python string and special-cases it; this results in a 1-3%
+ performance increase for applications that frequently use ``%``
+ with strings, such as templating libraries.
+ (Implemented by Collin Winter; :issue:`5176`.)
+* List comprehensions with an ``if`` condition are compiled into
+ faster bytecode. (Patch by Antoine Pitrou, back-ported to 2.7
+ by Jeffrey Yasskin; :issue:`4715`.)
.. ======================================================================
:file:`Misc/NEWS` file in the source tree for a more complete list of
changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details.
-* In Distutils, distutils.sdist.add_defaults now uses package_dir and data_files
- to feed MANIFEST.
-
-* It is not mandatory anymore to store clear text passwords in the
- :file:`.pypirc` file when registering and uploading packages to PyPI. As long
- as the username is present in that file, the :mod:`distutils` package will
- prompt for the password if not present. (Added by tarek, with the initial
- contribution of Nathan Van Gheem; :issue:`4394`.)
-
* The :mod:`bz2` module's :class:`BZ2File` now supports the context
management protocol, so you can write ``with bz2.BZ2File(...) as f: ...``.
(Contributed by Hagen Fuerstenau; :issue:`3860`.)
Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`1696199`.
+ The :class:`namedtuple` class now has an optional *rename* parameter.
+ If *rename* is True, field names that are invalid because they've
+ been repeated or that aren't legal Python identifiers will be
+ renamed to legal names that are derived from the field's
+ position within the list of fields:
+
+ >>> T=namedtuple('T', ['field1', '$illegal', 'for', 'field2'], rename=True)
+ >>> T._fields
+ ('field1', '_1', '_2', 'field2')
+
+ (Added by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`1818`.)
+
+* In Distutils, :func:`distutils.sdist.add_defaults` now uses
+ *package_dir* and *data_files* to create the MANIFEST file.
+
+ It is no longer mandatory to store clear-text passwords in the
+ :file:`.pypirc` file when registering and uploading packages to PyPI. As long
+ as the username is present in that file, the :mod:`distutils` package will
+ prompt for the password if not present. (Added by Tarek Ziade,
+ based on an initial contribution by Nathan Van Gheem; :issue:`4394`.)
+
+* New method: the :class:`Decimal` class gained a
+ :meth:`from_float` class method that performs an exact conversion
+ of a floating-point number to a :class:`Decimal`.
+ Note that this is an **exact** conversion that strives for the
+ closest decimal approximation to the floating-point representation's value;
+ the resulting decimal value will therefore still include the inaccuracy,
+ if any.
+ For example, ``Decimal.from_float(0.1)`` returns
+ ``Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')``.
+ (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`4796`.)
+
+* A new function in the :mod:`gc` module, :func:`is_tracked`, returns
+ True if a given instance is tracked by the garbage collector, False
+ otherwise. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`4688`.)
+
* The :mod:`gzip` module's :class:`GzipFile` now supports the context
management protocol, so you can write ``with gzip.GzipFile(...) as f: ...``.
(Contributed by Hagen Fuerstenau; :issue:`3860`.)
+ It's now possible to override the modification time
+ recorded in a gzipped file by providing an optional timestamp to
+ the constructor. (Contributed by Jacques Frechet; :issue:`4272`.)
* The :class:`io.FileIO` class now raises an :exc:`OSError` when passed
an invalid file descriptor. (Implemented by Benjamin Peterson;
:issue:`4991`.)
+* New function: ``itertools.compress(*data*, *selectors*)`` takes two
+ iterators. Elements of *data* are returned if the corresponding
+ value in *selectors* is True::
+
+ itertools.compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) =>
+ A, C, E, F
+
+ New function: ``itertools.combinations_with_replacement(*iter*, *r*)``
+ returns all the possible *r*-length combinations of elements from the
+ iterable *iter*. Unlike :func:`combinations`, individual elements
+ can be repeated in the generated combinations::
+
+ itertools.combinations_with_replacement('abc', 2) =>
+ ('a', 'a'), ('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'),
+ ('b', 'b'), ('b', 'c'), ('c', 'c')
+
+ Note that elements are treated as unique depending on their position
+ in the input, not their actual values.
+
+ The :class:`itertools.count` function now has a *step* argument that
+ allows incrementing by values other than 1. :func:`count` also
+ now allows keyword arguments, and using non-integer values such as
+ floats or :class:`Decimal` instances. (Implemented by Raymond
+ Hettinger; :issue:`5032`.)
+
+ :func:`itertools.combinations` and :func:`itertools.product` were
+ previously raising :exc:`ValueError` for values of *r* larger than
+ the input iterable. This was deemed a specification error, so they
+ now return an empty iterator. (Fixed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`4816`.)
+
+* The :mod:`json` module was upgraded to version 2.0.9 of the
+ simplejson package, which includes a C extension that makes
+ encoding and decoding faster.
+ (Contributed by Bob Ippolito; :issue:`4136`.)
+
+ To support the new :class:`OrderedDict` type, :func:`json.load`
+ now has an optional *object_pairs_hook* parameter that will be called
+ with any object literal that decodes to a list of pairs.
+ (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; :issue:`5381`.)
+
* The :mod:`pydoc` module now has help for the various symbols that Python
uses. You can now do ``help('<<')`` or ``help('@')``, for example.
(Contributed by David Laban; :issue:`4739`.)
* A new function in the :mod:`subprocess` module,
:func:`check_output`, runs a command with a specified set of arguments
- and returns the command's output as a string if the command runs without
+ and returns the command's output as a string when the command runs without
error, or raises a :exc:`CalledProcessError` exception otherwise.
::
(Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)
+* The ``sys.version_info`` value is now a named tuple, with attributes
+ named ``major``, ``minor``, ``micro``, ``releaselevel``, and ``serial``.
+ (Contributed by Ross Light; :issue:`4285`.)
+
+* The :mod:`unittest` module was enhanced in several ways.
+ Test cases can raise the :exc:`SkipTest` exception to skip a test.
+ (:issue:`1034053`.)
+ It will now use 'x' for expected failures
+ and 'u' for unexpected successes when run in its verbose mode.
+ (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)
+
+ The :meth:`assertRaises` and :meth:`failUnlessRaises` methods now
+ return a context handler when called without providing a callable
+ object to run. For example, you can write this::
+
+ with self.assertRaises(KeyError):
+ raise ValueError
+
+ (Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; :issue:`4444`.)
+
* The :func:`is_zipfile` function in the :mod:`zipfile` module will now
accept a file object, in addition to the path names accepted in earlier
versions. (Contributed by Gabriel Genellina; :issue:`4756`.)
+ :mod:`zipfile` now supports archiving empty directories and
+ extracts them correctly. (Fixed by Kuba Wieczorek; :issue:`4710`.)
+
.. ======================================================================
.. whole new modules get described in subsections here
+importlib: Importing Modules
+------------------------------
+
+XXX write this
+
ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk
--------------------------
debugged doesn't hold the GIL; the macro will now acquire it before printing.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner; :issue:`3632`.)
-* :cfunc:`Py_AddPendingCall` is now thread safe, letting any
+* :cfunc:`Py_AddPendingCall` is now thread-safe, letting any
worker thread submit notifications to the main Python thread. This
is particularly useful for asynchronous IO operations.
(Contributed by Kristjan Valur Jonsson; :issue:`4293`.)
+* The :program:`configure` script now checks for floating-point rounding bugs
+ on certain 32-bit Intel chips and defines a :cmacro:`X87_DOUBLE_ROUNDING`
+ preprocessor definition. No code currently uses this definition,
+ but it's available if anyone wishes to use it.
+ (Added by Mark Dickinson; :issue:`2937`.)
.. ======================================================================
Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
-----------------------------------
+* The ``/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages`` is now appended to
+ ``sys.path``, in order to share added packages between the system
+ installation and a user-installed copy of the same version.
+ (Changed by Ronald Oussoren; :issue:`4865`.)
+
+
+Other Changes and Fixes
+=======================
+
+* When importing a module from a :file:`.pyc` or :file:`.pyo` file
+ with an existing :file:`.py` counterpart, the :attr:`co_filename`
+ attributes of all code objects if the original filename is obsolete,
+ which can happen if the file has been renamed, moved, or is accessed
+ through different paths. (Patch by Ziga Seilnacht and Jean-Paul
+ Calderone; :issue:`1180193`.)
+
+* The :file:`regrtest.py` script now takes a :option:`--randseed=`
+ switch that takes an integer that will be used as the random seed
+ for the :option:`-r` option that executes tests in random order.
+ The :option:`-r` option also now reports the seed that was used
+ (Added by Collin Winter.)
+
.. ======================================================================
# -- External world manipulation -----------------------------------
def warn(self, msg):
- log.warn("warning: %s: %s\n" % (self.get_command_name(), msg))
+ log.warn("warning: %s: %s\n" %
+ (self.get_command_name(), msg))
def execute(self, func, args, msg=None, level=1):
util.execute(func, args, msg, dry_run=self.dry_run)
def _log(self, level, msg, args):
if level >= self.threshold:
- if not args:
- # msg may contain a '%'. If args is empty,
- # don't even try to string-format
- print(msg)
+ if args:
+ msg = msg % args
+ if level in (WARN, ERROR, FATAL):
+ stream = sys.stderr
else:
- print(msg % args)
- sys.stdout.flush()
+ stream = sys.stdout
+ stream.write('%s\n' % msg)
+ stream.flush()
def log(self, level, msg, *args):
self._log(level, msg, args)
def voidresp(self):
"""Expect a response beginning with '2'."""
resp = self.getresp()
- if resp[0] != '2':
+ if resp[:1] != '2':
raise error_reply(resp)
return resp
resp = self.sendcmd('DELE ' + filename)
if resp[:3] in ('250', '200'):
return resp
- elif resp[:1] == '5':
- raise error_perm(resp)
else:
raise error_reply(resp)
return list(iglob(pathname))
def iglob(pathname):
- """Return a list of paths matching a pathname pattern.
+ """Return an iterator which yields the paths matching a pathname pattern.
The pattern may contain simple shell-style wildcards a la fnmatch.
__version__ = "1.5.3"
__all__ = ['Option',
+ 'make_option',
'SUPPRESS_HELP',
'SUPPRESS_USAGE',
'Values',
rcFile.close()
self.commands = {} # associates a command list to breakpoint numbers
- self.commands_doprompt = {} # for each bp num, tells if the prompt must be disp. after execing the cmd list
- self.commands_silent = {} # for each bp num, tells if the stack trace must be disp. after execing the cmd list
- self.commands_defining = False # True while in the process of defining a command list
- self.commands_bnum = None # The breakpoint number for which we are defining a list
+ self.commands_doprompt = {} # for each bp num, tells if the prompt
+ # must be disp. after execing the cmd list
+ self.commands_silent = {} # for each bp num, tells if the stack trace
+ # must be disp. after execing the cmd list
+ self.commands_defining = False # True while in the process of defining
+ # a command list
+ self.commands_bnum = None # The breakpoint number for which we are
+ # defining a list
def reset(self):
bdb.Bdb.reset(self)
self.forget()
self.stack, self.curindex = self.get_stack(f, t)
self.curframe = self.stack[self.curindex][0]
+ # The f_locals dictionary is updated from the actual frame
+ # locals whenever the .f_locals accessor is called, so we
+ # cache it here to ensure that modifications are not overwritten.
+ self.curframe_locals = self.curframe.f_locals
self.execRcLines()
# Can be executed earlier than 'setup' if desired
self.cmdloop()
self.forget()
+ def displayhook(self, obj):
+ """Custom displayhook for the exec in default(), which prevents
+ assignment of the _ variable in the builtins.
+ """
+ print(repr(obj))
+
def default(self, line):
if line[:1] == '!': line = line[1:]
- locals = self.curframe.f_locals
+ locals = self.curframe_locals
globals = self.curframe.f_globals
try:
code = compile(line + '\n', '<stdin>', 'single')
save_stdout = sys.stdout
save_stdin = sys.stdin
+ save_displayhook = sys.displayhook
try:
sys.stdin = self.stdin
sys.stdout = self.stdout
+ sys.displayhook = self.displayhook
exec(code, globals, locals)
finally:
sys.stdout = save_stdout
sys.stdin = save_stdin
+ sys.displayhook = save_displayhook
except:
t, v = sys.exc_info()[:2]
if type(t) == type(''):
try:
func = eval(arg,
self.curframe.f_globals,
- self.curframe.f_locals)
+ self.curframe_locals)
except:
func = arg
try:
else:
self.curindex = self.curindex - 1
self.curframe = self.stack[self.curindex][0]
+ self.curframe_locals = self.curframe.f_locals
self.print_stack_entry(self.stack[self.curindex])
self.lineno = None
do_u = do_up
else:
self.curindex = self.curindex + 1
self.curframe = self.stack[self.curindex][0]
+ self.curframe_locals = self.curframe.f_locals
self.print_stack_entry(self.stack[self.curindex])
self.lineno = None
do_d = do_down
def do_debug(self, arg):
sys.settrace(None)
globals = self.curframe.f_globals
- locals = self.curframe.f_locals
+ locals = self.curframe_locals
p = Pdb(self.completekey, self.stdin, self.stdout)
p.prompt = "(%s) " % self.prompt.strip()
print("ENTERING RECURSIVE DEBUGGER", file=self.stdout)
return 1
def do_args(self, arg):
- f = self.curframe
- co = f.f_code
- dict = f.f_locals
+ co = self.curframe.f_code
+ dict = self.curframe_locals
n = co.co_argcount
if co.co_flags & 4: n = n+1
if co.co_flags & 8: n = n+1
do_a = do_args
def do_retval(self, arg):
- if '__return__' in self.curframe.f_locals:
- print(self.curframe.f_locals['__return__'], file=self.stdout)
+ if '__return__' in self.curframe_locals:
+ print(self.curframe_locals['__return__'], file=self.stdout)
else:
print('*** Not yet returned!', file=self.stdout)
do_rv = do_retval
def _getval(self, arg):
try:
- return eval(arg, self.curframe.f_globals,
- self.curframe.f_locals)
+ return eval(arg, self.curframe.f_globals, self.curframe_locals)
except:
t, v = sys.exc_info()[:2]
if isinstance(t, str):
def do_whatis(self, arg):
try:
value = eval(arg, self.curframe.f_globals,
- self.curframe.f_locals)
+ self.curframe_locals)
except:
t, v = sys.exc_info()[:2]
if type(t) == type(''):
+++ /dev/null
-+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
-Writing Python Regression Tests
-+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
-
-:Author: Skip Montanaro
-:Contact: skip@pobox.com
-
-Introduction
-============
-
-If you add a new module to Python or modify the functionality of an existing
-module, you should write one or more test cases to exercise that new
-functionality. There are different ways to do this within the regression
-testing facility provided with Python; any particular test should use only
-one of these options. Each option requires writing a test module using the
-conventions of the selected option:
-
- - unittest_ based tests
- - doctest_ based tests
- - "traditional" Python test modules
-
-Regardless of the mechanics of the testing approach you choose,
-you will be writing unit tests (isolated tests of functions and objects
-defined by the module) using white box techniques. Unlike black box
-testing, where you only have the external interfaces to guide your test case
-writing, in white box testing you can see the code being tested and tailor
-your test cases to exercise it more completely. In particular, you will be
-able to refer to the C and Python code in the CVS repository when writing
-your regression test cases.
-
-.. _unittest: http://www.python.org/doc/current/lib/module-unittest.html
-.. _doctest: http://www.python.org/doc/current/lib/module-doctest.html
-
-unittest-based tests
-------------------
-The unittest_ framework is based on the ideas of unit testing as espoused
-by Kent Beck and the `Extreme Programming`_ (XP) movement. The specific
-interface provided by the framework is tightly based on the JUnit_
-Java implementation of Beck's original SmallTalk test framework. Please
-see the documentation of the unittest_ module for detailed information on
-the interface and general guidelines on writing unittest-based tests.
-
-The test_support helper module provides a function for use by
-unittest-based tests in the Python regression testing framework,
-``run_unittest()``. This is the primary way of running tests in the
-standard library. You can pass it any number of the following:
-
-- classes derived from or instances of ``unittest.TestCase`` or
- ``unittest.TestSuite``. These will be handed off to unittest for
- converting into a proper TestSuite instance.
-
-- a string; this must be a key in sys.modules. The module associated with
- that string will be scanned by ``unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule``.
- This is usually seen as ``test_support.run_unittest(__name__)`` in a test
- module's ``test_main()`` function. This has the advantage of picking up
- new tests automatically, without you having to add each new test case
- manually.
-
-All test methods in the Python regression framework have names that
-start with "``test_``" and use lower-case names with words separated with
-underscores.
-
-Test methods should *not* have docstrings! The unittest module prints
-the docstring if there is one, but otherwise prints the function name
-and the full class name. When there's a problem with a test, the
-latter information makes it easier to find the source for the test
-than the docstring.
-
-All unittest-based tests in the Python test suite use boilerplate that
-looks like this (with minor variations)::
-
- import unittest
- from test import test_support
-
- class MyTestCase1(unittest.TestCase):
-
- # Define setUp and tearDown only if needed
-
- def setUp(self):
- unittest.TestCase.setUp(self)
- ... additional initialization...
-
- def tearDown(self):
- ... additional finalization...
- unittest.TestCase.tearDown(self)
-
- def test_feature_one(self):
- # Testing feature one
- ...unit test for feature one...
-
- def test_feature_two(self):
- # Testing feature two
- ...unit test for feature two...
-
- ...etc...
-
- class MyTestCase2(unittest.TestCase):
- ...same structure as MyTestCase1...
-
- ...etc...
-
- def test_main():
- test_support.run_unittest(__name__)
-
- if __name__ == "__main__":
- test_main()
-
-This has the advantage that it allows the unittest module to be used
-as a script to run individual tests as well as working well with the
-regrtest framework.
-
-.. _Extreme Programming: http://www.extremeprogramming.org/
-.. _JUnit: http://www.junit.org/
-
-doctest based tests
--------------------
-Tests written to use doctest_ are actually part of the docstrings for
-the module being tested. Each test is written as a display of an
-interactive session, including the Python prompts, statements that would
-be typed by the user, and the output of those statements (including
-tracebacks, although only the exception msg needs to be retained then).
-The module in the test package is simply a wrapper that causes doctest
-to run over the tests in the module. The test for the difflib module
-provides a convenient example::
-
- import difflib
- from test import test_support
- test_support.run_doctest(difflib)
-
-If the test is successful, nothing is written to stdout (so you should not
-create a corresponding output/test_difflib file), but running regrtest
-with -v will give a detailed report, the same as if passing -v to doctest.
-
-A second argument can be passed to run_doctest to tell doctest to search
-``sys.argv`` for -v instead of using test_support's idea of verbosity. This
-is useful for writing doctest-based tests that aren't simply running a
-doctest'ed Lib module, but contain the doctests themselves. Then at
-times you may want to run such a test directly as a doctest, independent
-of the regrtest framework. The tail end of test_descrtut.py is a good
-example::
-
- def test_main(verbose=None):
- from test import test_support, test_descrtut
- test_support.run_doctest(test_descrtut, verbose)
-
- if __name__ == "__main__":
- test_main(1)
-
-If run via regrtest, ``test_main()`` is called (by regrtest) without
-specifying verbose, and then test_support's idea of verbosity is used. But
-when run directly, ``test_main(1)`` is called, and then doctest's idea of
-verbosity is used.
-
-See the documentation for the doctest module for information on
-writing tests using the doctest framework.
-
-"traditional" Python test modules
----------------------------------
-The mechanics of how the "traditional" test system operates are fairly
-straightforward. When a test case is run, the output is compared with the
-expected output that is stored in .../Lib/test/output. If the test runs to
-completion and the actual and expected outputs match, the test succeeds, if
-not, it fails. If an ``ImportError`` or ``test_support.TestSkipped`` error
-is raised, the test is not run.
-
-Executing Test Cases
-====================
-If you are writing test cases for module spam, you need to create a file
-in .../Lib/test named test_spam.py. In addition, if the tests are expected
-to write to stdout during a successful run, you also need to create an
-expected output file in .../Lib/test/output named test_spam ("..."
-represents the top-level directory in the Python source tree, the directory
-containing the configure script). If needed, generate the initial version
-of the test output file by executing::
-
- ./python Lib/test/regrtest.py -g test_spam.py
-
-from the top-level directory.
-
-Any time you modify test_spam.py you need to generate a new expected
-output file. Don't forget to desk check the generated output to make sure
-it's really what you expected to find! All in all it's usually better
-not to have an expected-out file (note that doctest- and unittest-based
-tests do not).
-
-To run a single test after modifying a module, simply run regrtest.py
-without the -g flag::
-
- ./python Lib/test/regrtest.py test_spam.py
-
-While debugging a regression test, you can of course execute it
-independently of the regression testing framework and see what it prints::
-
- ./python Lib/test/test_spam.py
-
-To run the entire test suite:
-
-- [UNIX, + other platforms where "make" works] Make the "test" target at the
- top level::
-
- make test
-
-- [WINDOWS] Run rt.bat from your PCBuild directory. Read the comments at
- the top of rt.bat for the use of special -d, -O and -q options processed
- by rt.bat.
-
-- [OTHER] You can simply execute the two runs of regrtest (optimized and
- non-optimized) directly::
-
- ./python Lib/test/regrtest.py
- ./python -O Lib/test/regrtest.py
-
-But note that this way picks up whatever .pyc and .pyo files happen to be
-around. The makefile and rt.bat ways run the tests twice, the first time
-removing all .pyc and .pyo files from the subtree rooted at Lib/.
-
-Test cases generate output based upon values computed by the test code.
-When executed, regrtest.py compares the actual output generated by executing
-the test case with the expected output and reports success or failure. It
-stands to reason that if the actual and expected outputs are to match, they
-must not contain any machine dependencies. This means your test cases
-should not print out absolute machine addresses (e.g. the return value of
-the id() builtin function) or floating point numbers with large numbers of
-significant digits (unless you understand what you are doing!).
-
-
-Test Case Writing Tips
-======================
-Writing good test cases is a skilled task and is too complex to discuss in
-detail in this short document. Many books have been written on the subject.
-I'll show my age by suggesting that Glenford Myers' `"The Art of Software
-Testing"`_, published in 1979, is still the best introduction to the subject
-available. It is short (177 pages), easy to read, and discusses the major
-elements of software testing, though its publication predates the
-object-oriented software revolution, so doesn't cover that subject at all.
-Unfortunately, it is very expensive (about $100 new). If you can borrow it
-or find it used (around $20), I strongly urge you to pick up a copy.
-
-The most important goal when writing test cases is to break things. A test
-case that doesn't uncover a bug is much less valuable than one that does.
-In designing test cases you should pay attention to the following:
-
- * Your test cases should exercise all the functions and objects defined
- in the module, not just the ones meant to be called by users of your
- module. This may require you to write test code that uses the module
- in ways you don't expect (explicitly calling internal functions, for
- example - see test_atexit.py).
-
- * You should consider any boundary values that may tickle exceptional
- conditions (e.g. if you were writing regression tests for division,
- you might well want to generate tests with numerators and denominators
- at the limits of floating point and integer numbers on the machine
- performing the tests as well as a denominator of zero).
-
- * You should exercise as many paths through the code as possible. This
- may not always be possible, but is a goal to strive for. In
- particular, when considering if statements (or their equivalent), you
- want to create test cases that exercise both the true and false
- branches. For loops, you should create test cases that exercise the
- loop zero, one and multiple times.
-
- * You should test with obviously invalid input. If you know that a
- function requires an integer input, try calling it with other types of
- objects to see how it responds.
-
- * You should test with obviously out-of-range input. If the domain of a
- function is only defined for positive integers, try calling it with a
- negative integer.
-
- * If you are going to fix a bug that wasn't uncovered by an existing
- test, try to write a test case that exposes the bug (preferably before
- fixing it).
-
- * If you need to create a temporary file, you can use the filename in
- ``test_support.TESTFN`` to do so. It is important to remove the file
- when done; other tests should be able to use the name without cleaning
- up after your test.
-
-.. _"The Art of Software Testing":
- http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ISBN=0471043281
-
-Regression Test Writing Rules
-=============================
-Each test case is different. There is no "standard" form for a Python
-regression test case, though there are some general rules (note that
-these mostly apply only to the "classic" tests; unittest_- and doctest_-
-based tests should follow the conventions natural to those frameworks)::
-
- * If your test case detects a failure, raise ``TestFailed`` (found in
- ``test.test_support``).
-
- * Import everything you'll need as early as possible.
-
- * If you'll be importing objects from a module that is at least
- partially platform-dependent, only import those objects you need for
- the current test case to avoid spurious ``ImportError`` exceptions
- that prevent the test from running to completion.
-
- * Print all your test case results using the ``print`` statement. For
- non-fatal errors, print an error message (or omit a successful
- completion print) to indicate the failure, but proceed instead of
- raising ``TestFailed``.
-
- * Use ``assert`` sparingly, if at all. It's usually better to just print
- what you got, and rely on regrtest's got-vs-expected comparison to
- catch deviations from what you expect. ``assert`` statements aren't
- executed at all when regrtest is run in -O mode; and, because they
- cause the test to stop immediately, can lead to a long & tedious
- test-fix, test-fix, test-fix, ... cycle when things are badly broken
- (and note that "badly broken" often includes running the test suite
- for the first time on new platforms or under new implementations of
- the language).
-
-Miscellaneous
-=============
-There is a test_support module in the test package you can import for
-your test case. Import this module using either::
-
- import test.test_support
-
-or::
-
- from test import test_support
-
-test_support provides the following useful objects:
-
- * ``TestFailed`` - raise this exception when your regression test detects
- a failure.
-
- * ``TestSkipped`` - raise this if the test could not be run because the
- platform doesn't offer all the required facilities (like large
- file support), even if all the required modules are available.
-
- * ``ResourceDenied`` - this is raised when a test requires a resource that
- is not available. Primarily used by 'requires'.
-
- * ``verbose`` - you can use this variable to control print output. Many
- modules use it. Search for "verbose" in the test_*.py files to see
- lots of examples.
-
- * ``forget(module_name)`` - attempts to cause Python to "forget" that it
- loaded a module and erase any PYC files.
-
- * ``is_resource_enabled(resource)`` - Returns a boolean based on whether
- the resource is enabled or not.
-
- * ``requires(resource [, msg])`` - if the required resource is not
- available the ResourceDenied exception is raised.
-
- * ``verify(condition, reason='test failed')``. Use this instead of::
-
- assert condition[, reason]
-
- ``verify()`` has two advantages over ``assert``: it works even in -O
- mode, and it raises ``TestFailed`` on failure instead of
- ``AssertionError``.
-
- * ``is_jython`` - true if the interpreter is Jython, false otherwise.
-
- * ``TESTFN`` - a string that should always be used as the filename when
- you need to create a temp file. Also use ``try``/``finally`` to
- ensure that your temp files are deleted before your test completes.
- Note that you cannot unlink an open file on all operating systems, so
- also be sure to close temp files before trying to unlink them.
-
- * ``sortdict(dict)`` - acts like ``repr(dict.items())``, but sorts the
- items first. This is important when printing a dict value, because
- the order of items produced by ``dict.items()`` is not defined by the
- language.
-
- * ``findfile(file)`` - you can call this function to locate a file
- somewhere along sys.path or in the Lib/test tree - see
- test_ossaudiodev.py for an example of its use.
-
- * ``fcmp(x,y)`` - you can call this function to compare two floating
- point numbers when you expect them to only be approximately equal
- withing a fuzz factor (``test_support.FUZZ``, which defaults to 1e-6).
-
- * ``check_syntax_error(testcase, statement)`` - make sure that the
- statement is *not* correct Python syntax.
-
-
-Some Non-Obvious regrtest Features
-==================================
- * Automagic test detection: When you create a new test file
- test_spam.py, you do not need to modify regrtest (or anything else)
- to advertise its existence. regrtest searches for and runs all
- modules in the test directory with names of the form test_xxx.py.
-
- * Miranda output: If, when running test_spam.py, regrtest does not
- find an expected-output file test/output/test_spam, regrtest
- pretends that it did find one, containing the single line
-
- test_spam
-
- This allows new tests that don't expect to print anything to stdout
- to not bother creating expected-output files.
-
- * Two-stage testing: To run test_spam.py, regrtest imports test_spam
- as a module. Most tests run to completion as a side-effect of
- getting imported. After importing test_spam, regrtest also executes
- ``test_spam.test_main()``, if test_spam has a ``test_main`` attribute.
- This is rarely required with the "traditional" Python tests, and
- you shouldn't create a module global with name test_main unless
- you're specifically exploiting this gimmick. This usage does
- prove useful with unittest-based tests as well, however; defining
- a ``test_main()`` which is run by regrtest and a script-stub in the
- test module ("``if __name__ == '__main__': test_main()``") allows
- the test to be used like any other Python test and also work
- with the unittest.py-as-a-script approach, allowing a developer
- to run specific tests from the command line.
{}, dict2(), dict3(),
verify, pprint,
-6, -6, -6-6j, -1.5, "x", b"x", (3,), [3], {3: 6},
- (1,2), [3,4], {5: 6, 7: 8},
+ (1,2), [3,4], {5: 6},
tuple2((1,2)), tuple3((1,2)), tuple3(range(100)),
[3,4], list2([3,4]), list3([3,4]), list3(range(100)),
- {5: 6, 7: 8}, dict2({5: 6}), dict3({5: 6}),
+ dict2({5: 6}), dict3({5: 6}),
range(10, -11, -1)
):
native = repr(simple)
sys.setdlopenflags(oldflags)
def test_refcount(self):
+ # n here must be a global in order for this test to pass while
+ # tracing with a python function. Tracing calls PyFrame_FastToLocals
+ # which will add a copy of any locals to the frame object, causing
+ # the reference count to increase by 2 instead of 1.
+ global n
self.assertRaises(TypeError, sys.getrefcount)
c = sys.getrefcount(None)
n = None
t.join(NUMTASKS)
self.assert_(not t.is_alive())
self.failIfEqual(t.ident, 0)
+ self.assertFalse(t.ident is None)
self.assert_(re.match('<TestThread\(.*, \w+ -?\d+\)>', repr(t)))
if verbose:
print('all tasks done')
self.assertEqual(numrunning.get(), 0)
+ def test_ident_of_no_threading_threads(self):
+ # The ident still must work for the main thread and dummy threads.
+ self.assertFalse(threading.currentThread().ident is None)
+ def f():
+ ident.append(threading.currentThread().ident)
+ done.set()
+ done = threading.Event()
+ ident = []
+ _thread.start_new_thread(f, ())
+ done.wait()
+ self.assertFalse(ident[0] is None)
+
# run with a small(ish) thread stack size (256kB)
def test_various_ops_small_stack(self):
if verbose:
# Now raise an exception in the worker thread.
if verbose:
print(" waiting for worker thread to get started")
- worker_started.wait()
+ ret = worker_started.wait()
+ self.assertTrue(ret)
if verbose:
print(" verifying worker hasn't exited")
self.assert_(not t.finished)
try:
if not self._flag:
self._cond.wait(timeout)
+ return self._flag
finally:
self._cond.release()
raise RuntimeError("thread already started")
if __debug__:
self._note("%s.start(): starting thread", self)
- _active_limbo_lock.acquire()
- _limbo[self] = self
- _active_limbo_lock.release()
+ with _active_limbo_lock:
+ _limbo[self] = self
_start_new_thread(self._bootstrap, ())
self._started.wait()
return
raise
+ def _set_ident(self):
+ self._ident = _get_ident()
+
def _bootstrap_inner(self):
try:
- self._ident = _get_ident()
+ self._set_ident()
self._started.set()
- _active_limbo_lock.acquire()
- _active[self._ident] = self
- del _limbo[self]
- _active_limbo_lock.release()
+ with _active_limbo_lock:
+ _active[self._ident] = self
+ del _limbo[self]
if __debug__:
self._note("%s._bootstrap(): thread started", self)
def __init__(self):
Thread.__init__(self, name="MainThread")
self._started.set()
- _active_limbo_lock.acquire()
- _active[_get_ident()] = self
- _active_limbo_lock.release()
+ self._set_ident()
+ with _active_limbo_lock:
+ _active[self._ident] = self
def _set_daemon(self):
return False
self._started.set()
- _active_limbo_lock.acquire()
- _active[_get_ident()] = self
- _active_limbo_lock.release()
+ self._set_ident()
+ with _active_limbo_lock:
+ _active[self._ident] = self
def _set_daemon(self):
return True
currentThread = current_thread
def active_count():
- _active_limbo_lock.acquire()
- count = len(_active) + len(_limbo)
- _active_limbo_lock.release()
- return count
+ with _active_limbo_lock:
+ return len(_active) + len(_limbo)
activeCount = active_count
def enumerate():
- _active_limbo_lock.acquire()
- active = list(_active.values()) + list(_limbo.values())
- _active_limbo_lock.release()
- return active
+ with _active_limbo_lock:
+ return list(_active.values()) + list(_limbo.values())
from _thread import stack_size
Greg Kochanski
Damon Kohler
Joseph Koshy
+Maksim Kozyarchuk
Bob Kras
Holger Krekel
Michael Kremer
Permissions History
-------------------
+- Paul Kippes was given commit privileges at PyCon 2009 by BAC to work on 3to2.
+
+- Ron DuPlain was given commit privileges at PyCon 2009 by BAC to work on 3to2.
+
+- Several developers of alternative Python implementations where
+ given access for test suite and library adaptions by MvL:
+ Allison Randal (Parrot), Michael Foord (IronPython),
+ Jim Baker, Philip Jenvey, and Frank Wierzbicki (all Jython).
+
+- R. David Murray was given SVN access on March 30 2009 by MvL, after
+ recommendation by BAC.
+
- Chris Withers was given SVN access on March 8 2009 by MvL,
after recommendation by GvR.
Initials of Project Admins
--------------------------
-GvR: Guido van Rossum
-NCN: Neal Norwitz
-RDH: Raymond Hettinger
TGP: Tim Peters
+GFB: Georg Brandl
+BAC: Brett Cannon
+NCN: Neal Norwitz
DJG: David Goodger
MvL: Martin v. Loewis
-GFB: Georg Brandl
+GvR: Guido van Rossum
+RDH: Raymond Hettinger
"Return the name of the generator's associated code object.");
static PyGetSetDef gen_getsetlist[] = {
- {"__name__", (getter)gen_get_name, NULL, NULL, gen__name__doc__},
+ {"__name__", (getter)gen_get_name, NULL, gen__name__doc__},
{NULL}
};
#! /bin/sh
-# From configure.in Revision: 70459 .
+# From configure.in Revision: 70732 .
# Guess values for system-dependent variables and create Makefiles.
# Generated by GNU Autoconf 2.61 for python 3.1.
#
+if test "$prefix" != "/"; then
+ prefix=`echo "$prefix" | sed -e 's/\/$//g'`
+fi
+
+
AC_CONFIG_SRCDIR([Include/object.h])
AC_CONFIG_HEADER(pyconfig.h)
+dnl Ensure that if prefix is specified, it does not end in a slash. If
+dnl it does, we get path names containing '//' which is both ugly and
+dnl can cause trouble.
+
+dnl Last slash shouldn't be stripped if prefix=/
+if test "$prefix" != "/"; then
+ prefix=`echo "$prefix" | sed -e 's/\/$//g'`
+fi
+
dnl This is for stuff that absolutely must end up in pyconfig.h.
dnl Please use pyport.h instead, if possible.
AH_TOP([
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