\begin{cfuncdesc}{PyObject*}{PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM}{PyObject *o, int i}
Return the \var{i}th element of \var{o}, assuming that \var{o} was
- returned by \cfunction{PySequence_Fast()}, \var{o} is not \NULL{},
+ returned by \cfunction{PySequence_Fast()}, \var{o} is not \NULL,
and that \var{i} is within bounds.
\end{cfuncdesc}
\begin{cfuncdesc}{int}{PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE}{PyObject *o}
Returns the length of \var{o}, assuming that \var{o} was
returned by \cfunction{PySequence_Fast()} and that \var{o} is
- not \NULL{}. The size can also be gotten by calling
+ not \NULL. The size can also be gotten by calling
\cfunction{PySequence_Size()} on \var{o}, but
\cfunction{PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE()} is faster because it can
assume \var{o} is a list or tuple.
The Application Programmer's Interface to Python gives C and
\Cpp{} programmers access to the Python interpreter at a variety of
-levels. The API is equally usable from \Cpp{}, but for brevity it is
+levels. The API is equally usable from \Cpp, but for brevity it is
generally referred to as the Python/C API. There are two
fundamentally different reasons for using the Python/C API. The first
reason is to write \emph{extension modules} for specific purposes;
% (what to watch out for)
-\section{Embedding Python in \Cpp{}
+\section{Embedding Python in \Cpp
\label{embeddingInCplusplus}}
It is also possible to embed Python in a \Cpp{} program; precisely how this
is done will depend on the details of the \Cpp{} system used; in general you
-will need to write the main program in \Cpp{}, and use the \Cpp{} compiler
+will need to write the main program in \Cpp, and use the \Cpp{} compiler
to compile and link your program. There is no need to recompile Python
-itself using \Cpp{}.
+itself using \Cpp.
\section{Linking Requirements
-\chapter{Extending Python with C or \Cpp{} \label{intro}}
+\chapter{Extending Python with C or \Cpp \label{intro}}
It is quite easy to add new built-in modules to Python, if you know
\constant{METH_VARARGS} flag; this is described in section
\ref{methodTable}, ``The Module's Method Table and Initialization
Function.'' The \cfunction{PyArg_ParseTuple()} function and its
-arguments are documented in section \ref{parseTuple}, ``Extracting
+arguments are documented in section~\ref{parseTuple}, ``Extracting
Parameters in Extension Functions.''
The macros \cfunction{Py_XINCREF()} and \cfunction{Py_XDECREF()}
increment/decrement the reference count of an object and are safe in
the presence of \NULL{} pointers (but note that \var{temp} will not be
-\NULL{} in this context). More info on them in section
-\ref{refcounts}, ``Reference Counts.''
+\NULL{} in this context). More info on them in
+section~\ref{refcounts}, ``Reference Counts.''
Later, when it is time to call the function, you call the C function
\cfunction{PyEval_CallObject()}. This function has two arguments, both
even (especially!) if you are not interested in its value.
Before you do this, however, it is important to check that the return
-value isn't \NULL{}. If it is, the Python function terminated by
+value isn't \NULL. If it is, the Python function terminated by
raising an exception. If the C code that called
\cfunction{PyEval_CallObject()} is called from Python, it should now
return an error indication to its Python caller, so the interpreter
\item[\samp{z} (string or \code{None}) {[char *]}]
Like \samp{s}, but the Python object may also be \code{None}, in which
-case the C pointer is set to \NULL{}.
+case the C pointer is set to \NULL.
\item[\samp{z\#} (string or \code{None} or any read buffer compatible object)
{[char *, int]}]
second a pointer to a pointer to a character buffer (\var{**buffer},
the buffer used for storing the encoded data).
-The encoding name must map to a registered codec. If set to \NULL{},
+The encoding name must map to a registered codec. If set to \NULL,
the default encoding is used.
\cfunction{PyArg_ParseTuple()} will allocate a buffer of the needed
storing the encoded data) and the third one a pointer to an integer
(\var{*buffer_length}, the buffer length).
-The encoding name must map to a registered codec. If set to \NULL{},
+The encoding name must map to a registered codec. If set to \NULL,
the default encoding is used.
There are two modes of operation:
Store a Python object (without any conversion) in a C object pointer.
The C program thus receives the actual object that was passed. The
object's reference count is not increased. The pointer stored is not
-\NULL{}.
+\NULL.
\item[\samp{O!} (object) {[\var{typeobject}, PyObject *]}]
Store a Python object in a C object pointer. This is similar to
The \var{arg} and \var{format} parameters are identical to those of the
\cfunction{PyArg_ParseTuple()} function. The \var{kwdict} parameter
is the dictionary of keywords received as the third parameter from the
-Python runtime. The \var{kwlist} parameter is a \NULL{}-terminated
+Python runtime. The \var{kwlist} parameter is a \NULL-terminated
list of strings which identify the parameters; the names are matched
with the type information from \var{format} from left to right. On
success, \cfunction{PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords()} returns true,
\item[\samp{s} (string) {[char *]}]
Convert a null-terminated C string to a Python object. If the C
-string pointer is \NULL{}, \code{None} is used.
+string pointer is \NULL, \code{None} is used.
\item[\samp{s\#} (string) {[char *, int]}]
Convert a C string and its length to a Python object. If the C string
-pointer is \NULL{}, the length is ignored and \code{None} is
+pointer is \NULL, the length is ignored and \code{None} is
returned.
\item[\samp{z} (string or \code{None}) {[char *]}]
\section{Reference Counts
\label{refcounts}}
-In languages like C or \Cpp{}, the programmer is responsible for
+In languages like C or \Cpp, the programmer is responsible for
dynamic allocation and deallocation of memory on the heap. In C,
this is done using the functions \cfunction{malloc()} and
-\cfunction{free()}. In \Cpp{}, the operators \keyword{new} and
+\cfunction{free()}. In \Cpp, the operators \keyword{new} and
\keyword{delete} are used with essentially the same meaning; they are
actually implemented using \cfunction{malloc()} and
\cfunction{free()}, so we'll restrict the following discussion to the
references generally return \NULL{} only to indicate that an
exception occurred. The reason for not testing for \NULL{}
arguments is that functions often pass the objects they receive on to
-other function --- if each function were to test for \NULL{},
+other function --- if each function were to test for \NULL,
there would be a lot of redundant tests and the code would run more
slowly.
% description.
-\section{Writing Extensions in \Cpp{}
+\section{Writing Extensions in \Cpp
\label{cplusplus}}
-It is possible to write extension modules in \Cpp{}. Some restrictions
+It is possible to write extension modules in \Cpp. Some restrictions
apply. If the main program (the Python interpreter) is compiled and
linked by the C compiler, global or static objects with constructors
cannot be used. This is not a problem if the main program is linked
that reflects various system variables determined by configure when
the Python interpreter was built, so people building module's don't
have to resupply these settings. This vastly simplifies the process
-of building extensions and custom interpreters on Unix systems.
+of building extensions and custom interpreters on \UNIX{} systems.
The make file make file is distributed as the file
\file{Misc/Makefile.pre.in} in the Python source distribution. The
This chapter briefly explains how to create a Windows extension module
-for Python using Microsoft Visual \Cpp{}, and follows with more
+for Python using Microsoft Visual \Cpp, and follows with more
detailed background information on how it works. The explanatory
material is useful for both the Windows programmer learning to build
Python extensions and the \UNIX{} programmer interested in producing
loading of code. Before you try to build a module that can be
dynamically loaded, be aware of how your system works.
-In \UNIX{}, a shared object (\file{.so}) file contains code to be used by the
+In \UNIX, a shared object (\file{.so}) file contains code to be used by the
program, and also the names of functions and data that it expects to
find in the program. When the file is joined to the program, all
references to those functions and data in the file's code are changed
DLL's lookup table, and the lookup table is modified at runtime to
point to the functions and data.
-In \UNIX{}, there is only one type of library file (\file{.a}) which
+In \UNIX, there is only one type of library file (\file{.a}) which
contains code from several object files (\file{.o}). During the link
step to create a shared object file (\file{.so}), the linker may find
that it doesn't know where an identifier is defined. The linker will
future DLLs that depend on the symbols in the application or DLL.
Suppose you are building two dynamic-load modules, B and C, which should
-share another block of code A. On \UNIX{}, you would \emph{not} pass
+share another block of code A. On \UNIX, you would \emph{not} pass
\file{A.a} to the linker for \file{B.so} and \file{C.so}; that would
cause it to be included twice, so that B and C would each have their
own copy. In Windows, building \file{A.dll} will also build
In Windows, using an import library is sort of like using \samp{import
spam}; it gives you access to spam's names, but does not create a
-separate copy. On \UNIX{}, linking with a library is more like
+separate copy. On \UNIX, linking with a library is more like
\samp{from spam import *}; it does create a separate copy.
\section{Using DLLs in Practice \label{win-dlls}}
\sectionauthor{Chris Phoenix}{cphoenix@best.com}
-Windows Python is built in Microsoft Visual \Cpp{}; using other
+Windows Python is built in Microsoft Visual \Cpp; using other
compilers may or may not work (though Borland seems to). The rest of
this section is MSV\Cpp{} specific.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{tod_gettime}{}
-Returns the time (in seconds since the Epoch, in UCT, as for \POSIX{}) from
+Returns the time (in seconds since the Epoch, in UCT, as for \POSIX) from
a time server.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{seealso}
- \seemodule{binascii}{Support module containing \ASCII{}-to-binary
+ \seemodule{binascii}{Support module containing \ASCII-to-binary
and binary-to-\ASCII{} conversions.}
\seerfc{1521}{MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) Part One:
Mechanisms for Specifying and Describing the Format of
\section{\module{binascii} ---
- Convert between binary and \ASCII{}}
+ Convert between binary and \ASCII}
\declaremodule{builtin}{binascii}
\modulesynopsis{Tools for converting between binary and various
The \module{binascii} module contains a number of methods to convert
-between binary and various \ASCII{}-encoded binary
+between binary and various \ASCII-encoded binary
representations. Normally, you will not use these functions directly
but use wrapper modules like \refmodule{uu}\refstmodindex{uu} or
\refmodule{binhex}\refstmodindex{binhex} instead, this module solely
This module encodes and decodes files in binhex4 format, a format
-allowing representation of Macintosh files in \ASCII{}. On the Macintosh,
+allowing representation of Macintosh files in \ASCII. On the Macintosh,
both forks of a file and the finder information are encoded (or
decoded), on other platforms only the data fork is handled.
\begin{funcdesc}{timegm}{tuple}
An unrelated but handy function that takes a time tuple such as
returned by the \function{gmtime()} function in the \refmodule{time}
-module, and returns the corresponding Unix timestamp value, assuming
+module, and returns the corresponding \UNIX{} timestamp value, assuming
an epoch of 1970, and the POSIX encoding. In fact,
\function{time.gmtime()} and \function{timegm()} are each others' inverse.
\end{funcdesc}
alphanumeric characters, dashes, underscores, and periods.
-\subsection{Installing your CGI script on a Unix system}
+\subsection{Installing your CGI script on a \UNIX\ system}
Read the documentation for your HTTP server and check with your local
system administrator to find the directory where CGI scripts should be
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{erasechar}{}
-Returns the user's current erase character. Under Unix operating
+Returns the user's current erase character. Under \UNIX{} operating
systems this is a property of the controlling tty of the curses
program, and is not set by the curses library itself.
\end{funcdesc}
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{killchar}{}
-Returns the user's current line kill character. Under Unix operating
+Returns the user's current line kill character. Under \UNIX{} operating
systems this is a property of the controlling tty of the curses
program, and is not set by the curses library itself.
\end{funcdesc}
Call the function named \var{name} in the referenced shared object.
The arguments must be either Python integers, which will be
passed as is, Python strings, to which a pointer will be passed,
-or \code{None}, which will be passed as \NULL{}. Note that
+or \code{None}, which will be passed as \NULL. Note that
strings should only be passed to functions as \ctype{const char*}, as
Python will not like its string mutated.
\begin{excdesc}{EOFError}
% XXXJH xrefs here
Raised when one of the built-in functions (\function{input()} or
- \function{raw_input()}) hits an end-of-file condition (\EOF{}) without
+ \function{raw_input()}) hits an end-of-file condition (\EOF) without
reading any data.
% XXXJH xrefs here
(N.B.: the \method{read()} and \method{readline()} methods of file
- objects return an empty string when they hit \EOF{}.)
+ objects return an empty string when they hit \EOF.)
\end{excdesc}
\begin{excdesc}{FloatingPointError}
\modulesynopsis{The \function{fcntl()} and \function{ioctl()} system calls.}
\sectionauthor{Jaap Vermeulen}{}
-\indexii{UNIX@\UNIX{}}{file control}
-\indexii{UNIX@\UNIX{}}{I/O control}
+\indexii{UNIX@\UNIX}{file control}
+\indexii{UNIX@\UNIX}{I/O control}
This module performs file control and I/O control on file descriptors.
It is an interface to the \cfunction{fcntl()} and \cfunction{ioctl()}
\lineii{[!\var{seq}]}{matches any character not in \var{seq}}
\end{tableii}
-Note that the filename separator (\code{'/'} on \UNIX{}) is \emph{not}
+Note that the filename separator (\code{'/'} on \UNIX) is \emph{not}
special to this module. See module
\refmodule{glob}\refstmodindex{glob} for pathname expansion
(\refmodule{glob} uses \function{fnmatch()} to match pathname
Prompt the user for a password without echoing. The user is
prompted using the string \var{prompt}, which defaults to
\code{'Password: '}.
- Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+ Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{getuser}{}
Return the ``login name'' of the user.
- Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+ Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
This function checks the environment variables \envvar{LOGNAME},
\envvar{USER}, \envvar{LNAME} and \envvar{USERNAME}, in order, and
This module defines a number of classes that allow easy and uniform
-access to mail messages in a (\UNIX{}) mailbox.
+access to mail messages in a (\UNIX) mailbox.
\begin{classdesc}{UnixMailbox}{fp\optional{, factory}}
Access to a classic \UNIX-style mailbox, where all messages are
Memory-mapped file support}
\declaremodule{builtin}{mmap}
-\modulesynopsis{Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows.}
+\modulesynopsis{Interface to memory-mapped files for \UNIX\ and Windows.}
Memory-mapped file objects behave like both mutable strings and like
file objects. You can use mmap objects in most places where strings
\begin{funcdesc}{ctermid}{}
Return the filename corresponding to the controlling terminal of the
process.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{getegid}{}
Return the current process' effective group id.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{geteuid}{}
\index{user!effective id}
Return the current process' effective user id.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{getgid}{}
\index{process!group}
Return the current process' group id.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{getgroups}{}
Return list of supplemental group ids associated with the current
process.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{getlogin}{}
Return the actual login name for the current process, even if there
are multiple login names which map to the same user id.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{getpgrp}{}
\index{process!group}
Return the current process group id.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{getpid}{}
\index{process!id}
Return the current process id.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{getppid}{}
\index{process!id of parent}
Return the parent's process id.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{getuid}{}
\index{user!id}
Return the current process' user id.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{getenv}{varname\optional{, value}}
Return the value of the environment variable \var{varname} if it
exists, or \var{value} if it doesn't. \var{value} defaults to
\code{None}.
-Availability: most flavors of \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: most flavors of \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{putenv}{varname, value}
\var{value}. Such changes to the environment affect subprocesses
started with \function{os.system()}, \function{popen()} or
\function{fork()} and \function{execv()}.
-Availability: most flavors of \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: most flavors of \UNIX, Windows.
When \function{putenv()} is
supported, assignments to items in \code{os.environ} are automatically
\begin{funcdesc}{setegid}{egid}
Set the current process's effective group id.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{seteuid}{euid}
Set the current process's effective user id.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{setgid}{gid}
Set the current process' group id.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{setgroups}{groups}
process to \var{groups}. \var{groups} must be a sequence, and each
element must be an integer identifying a group. This operation is
typical available only to the superuser.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\versionadded{2.2}
\end{funcdesc}
Calls the system call \cfunction{setpgrp()} or \cfunction{setpgrp(0,
0)} depending on which version is implemented (if any). See the
\UNIX{} manual for the semantics.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{setpgid}{pid, pgrp}
Calls the system call \cfunction{setpgid()}. See the \UNIX{} manual
for the semantics.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{setreuid}{ruid, euid}
Set the current process's real and effective user ids.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{setregid}{rgid, egid}
Set the current process's real and effective group ids.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{setsid}{}
Calls the system call \cfunction{setsid()}. See the \UNIX{} manual
for the semantics.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{setuid}{uid}
\index{user!id, setting}
Set the current process' user id.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
% placed in this section since it relates to errno.... a little weak ;-(
\begin{funcdesc}{strerror}{code}
Return the error message corresponding to the error code in
\var{code}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{umask}{mask}
Set the current numeric umask and returns the previous umask.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{uname}{}
or even
\withsubitem{(in module socket)}{\ttindex{gethostbyaddr()}}
\code{socket.gethostbyaddr(socket.gethostname())}.
-Availability: recent flavors of \UNIX{}.
+Availability: recent flavors of \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
The \var{mode} and \var{bufsize} arguments have the same meaning as
the corresponding arguments to the built-in \function{open()}
function.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{popen}{command\optional{, mode\optional{, bufsize}}}
available as the return value of the \method{close()} method of the file
object, except that when the exit status is zero (termination without
errors), \code{None} is returned.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\versionchanged[This function worked unreliably under Windows in
earlier versions of Python. This was due to the use of the
Return a new file object opened in update mode (\samp{w+}). The file
has no directory entries associated with it and will be automatically
deleted once there are no file descriptors for the file.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{popen2}{cmd\optional{, mode\optional{, bufsize}}}
Executes \var{cmd} as a sub-process. Returns the file objects
\code{(\var{child_stdin}, \var{child_stdout})}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\versionadded{2.0}
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{popen3}{cmd\optional{, mode\optional{, bufsize}}}
Executes \var{cmd} as a sub-process. Returns the file objects
\code{(\var{child_stdin}, \var{child_stdout}, \var{child_stderr})}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\versionadded{2.0}
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{popen4}{cmd\optional{, mode\optional{, bufsize}}}
Executes \var{cmd} as a sub-process. Returns the file objects
\code{(\var{child_stdin}, \var{child_stdout_and_stderr})}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\versionadded{2.0}
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{close}{fd}
Close file descriptor \var{fd}.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
Note: this function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied
to a file descriptor as returned by \function{open()} or
\begin{funcdesc}{dup}{fd}
Return a duplicate of file descriptor \var{fd}.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{dup2}{fd, fd2}
Duplicate file descriptor \var{fd} to \var{fd2}, closing the latter
first if necessary.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{fpathconf}{fd, name}
Return system configuration information relevant to an open file.
\var{name} specifies the configuration value to retrieve; it may be a
string which is the name of a defined system value; these names are
-specified in a number of standards (\POSIX.1, Unix95, Unix98, and
+specified in a number of standards (\POSIX.1, \UNIX 95, \UNIX 98, and
others). Some platforms define additional names as well. The names
known to the host operating system are given in the
\code{pathconf_names} dictionary. For configuration variables not
included in that mapping, passing an integer for \var{name} is also
accepted.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
If \var{name} is a string and is not known, \exception{ValueError} is
raised. If a specific value for \var{name} is not supported by the
\begin{funcdesc}{fstat}{fd}
Return status for file descriptor \var{fd}, like \function{stat()}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{fstatvfs}{fd}
Return information about the filesystem containing the file associated
with file descriptor \var{fd}, like \function{statvfs()}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{ftruncate}{fd, length}
Truncate the file corresponding to file descriptor \var{fd},
so that it is at most \var{length} bytes in size.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{isatty}{fd}
Return \code{1} if the file descriptor \var{fd} is open and connected to a
tty(-like) device, else \code{0}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{lseek}{fd, pos, how}
relative to the beginning of the file; \code{1} to set it relative to
the current position; \code{2} to set it relative to the end of the
file.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{open}{file, flags\optional{, mode}}
The default \var{mode} is \code{0777} (octal), and the current umask
value is first masked out. Return the file descriptor for the newly
opened file.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
For a description of the flag and mode values, see the C run-time
documentation; flag constants (like \constant{O_RDONLY} and
\code{(\var{master}, \var{slave})} for the pty and the tty,
respectively. For a (slightly) more portable approach, use the
\refmodule{pty}\refstmodindex{pty} module.
-Availability: Some flavors of \UNIX{}
+Availability: Some flavors of \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{pipe}{}
Create a pipe. Return a pair of file descriptors \code{(\var{r},
\var{w})} usable for reading and writing, respectively.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{read}{fd, n}
Read at most \var{n} bytes from file descriptor \var{fd}.
Return a string containing the bytes read.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
Note: this function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied
to a file descriptor as returned by \function{open()} or
\begin{funcdesc}{tcgetpgrp}{fd}
Return the process group associated with the terminal given by
\var{fd} (an open file descriptor as returned by \function{open()}).
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{tcsetpgrp}{fd, pg}
Set the process group associated with the terminal given by
\var{fd} (an open file descriptor as returned by \function{open()})
to \var{pg}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{ttyname}{fd}
Return a string which specifies the terminal device associated with
file-descriptor \var{fd}. If \var{fd} is not associated with a terminal
device, an exception is raised.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{write}{fd, str}
Write the string \var{str} to file descriptor \var{fd}.
Return the number of bytes actually written.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
Note: this function is intended for low-level I/O and must be applied
to a file descriptor as returned by \function{open()} or
\dataline{O_TRUNC}
Options for the \var{flag} argument to the \function{open()} function.
These can be bit-wise OR'd together.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{datadesc}
\begin{datadesc}{O_BINARY}
of \constant{R_OK}, \constant{W_OK}, and \constant{X_OK} to test
permissions. Return \code{1} if access is allowed, \code{0} if not.
See the \UNIX{} man page \manpage{access}{2} for more information.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{datadesc}{F_OK}
\begin{funcdesc}{chdir}{path}
\index{directory!changing}
Change the current working directory to \var{path}.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{getcwd}{}
Return a string representing the current working directory.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{chroot}{path}
Change the root directory of the current process to \var{path}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\versionadded{2.2}
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{chmod}{path, mode}
Change the mode of \var{path} to the numeric \var{mode}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{chown}{path, uid, gid}
Change the owner and group id of \var{path} to the numeric \var{uid}
and \var{gid}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{link}{src, dst}
Create a hard link pointing to \var{src} named \var{dst}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{listdir}{path}
The list is in arbitrary order. It does not include the special
entries \code{'.'} and \code{'..'} even if they are present in the
directory.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{lstat}{path}
Like \function{stat()}, but do not follow symbolic links.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{mkfifo}{path\optional{, mode}}
Create a FIFO (a named pipe) named \var{path} with numeric mode
\var{mode}. The default \var{mode} is \code{0666} (octal). The current
umask value is first masked out from the mode.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
FIFOs are pipes that can be accessed like regular files. FIFOs exist
until they are deleted (for example with \function{os.unlink()}).
The default \var{mode} is \code{0777} (octal). On some systems,
\var{mode} is ignored. Where it is used, the current umask value is
first masked out.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{makedirs}{path\optional{, mode}}
\code{pathconf_names} dictionary. For configuration variables not
included in that mapping, passing an integer for \var{name} is also
accepted.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
If \var{name} is a string and is not known, \exception{ValueError} is
raised. If a specific value for \var{name} is not supported by the
points. The result may be either an absolute or relative pathname; if
it is relative, it may be converted to an absolute pathname using
\code{os.path.join(os.path.dirname(\var{path}), \var{result})}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{remove}{path}
use causes an exception to be raised; on \UNIX, the directory entry is
removed but the storage allocated to the file is not made available
until the original file is no longer in use.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{removedirs}{path}
\exception{OSError} will be raised even if it is a file; there may be
no way to implement an atomic rename when \var{dst} names an existing
file.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{renames}{old, new}
\begin{funcdesc}{rmdir}{path}
Remove the directory \var{path}.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{stat}{path}
on the Mac OS, the time values are floating point values, like all
time values on the Mac OS.
(On Windows, some items are filled with dummy values.)
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
Note: The standard module \refmodule{stat}\refstmodindex{stat} defines
functions and constants that are useful for extracting information
\code{f_favail},
\code{f_flag},
\code{f_namemax}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
Note: The standard module \module{statvfs}\refstmodindex{statvfs}
defines constants that are useful for extracting information
\begin{funcdesc}{symlink}{src, dst}
Create a symbolic link pointing to \var{src} named \var{dst}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{tempnam}{\optional{dir\optional{, prefix}}}
Remove the file \var{path}. This is the same function as
\function{remove()}; the \function{unlink()} name is its traditional
\UNIX{} name.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{utime}{path, times}
2-tuple of numbers, of the form \code{(\var{atime}, \var{mtime})}
which is used to set the access and modified times, respectively.
\versionchanged[Added support for \code{None} for \var{times}]{2.0}
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{_exit}{n}
Exit to the system with status \var{n}, without calling cleanup
handlers, flushing stdio buffers, etc.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
Note: the standard way to exit is \code{sys.exit(\var{n})}.
\function{_exit()} should normally only be used in the child process
\begin{funcdesc}{fork}{}
Fork a child process. Return \code{0} in the child, the child's
process id in the parent.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{forkpty}{}
in the parent, and \code{fd} is the file descriptor of the master end
of the pseudo-terminal. For a more portable approach, use the
\refmodule{pty} module.
-Availability: Some flavors of \UNIX{}
+Availability: Some flavors of \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{kill}{pid, sig}
\index{process!killing}
\index{process!signalling}
Kill the process \var{pid} with signal \var{sig}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{nice}{increment}
Add \var{increment} to the process's ``niceness''. Return the new
niceness.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{plock}{op}
Lock program segments into memory. The value of \var{op}
(defined in \code{<sys/lock.h>}) determines which segments are locked.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdescni}{popen}{\unspecified}
family of functions. If either of these values is given, the
\function{spawn*()} functions will return as soon as the new process
has been created, with the process ID as the return value.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\versionadded{1.6}
\end{datadesc}
has run to completion and will return the exit code of the process the
run is successful, or \code{-\var{signal}} if a signal kills the
process.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\versionadded{1.6}
\end{datadesc}
where it is always \code{0}. Note that \POSIX{} does not specify the
meaning of the return value of the C \cfunction{system()} function,
so the return value of the Python function is system-dependent.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{times}{}
point in the past, in that order. See the \UNIX{} manual page
\manpage{times}{2} or the corresponding Windows Platform API
documentation.
-Availability: \UNIX{}, Windows.
+Availability: \UNIX, Windows.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{wait}{}
the signal number that killed the process, and whose high byte is the
exit status (if the signal number is zero); the high bit of the low
byte is set if a core file was produced.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{waitpid}{pid, options}
indication (encoded as for \function{wait()}). The semantics of the
call are affected by the value of the integer \var{options}, which
should be \code{0} for normal operation.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
If \var{pid} is greater than \code{0}, \function{waitpid()} requests
status information for that specific process. If \var{pid} is
\begin{datadesc}{WNOHANG}
The option for \function{waitpid()} to avoid hanging if no child
process status is available immediately.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{datadesc}
The following functions take a process status code as returned by
\begin{funcdesc}{WIFSTOPPED}{status}
Return true if the process has been stopped.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{WIFSIGNALED}{status}
Return true if the process exited due to a signal.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{WIFEXITED}{status}
Return true if the process exited using the \manpage{exit}{2} system
call.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{WEXITSTATUS}{status}
If \code{WIFEXITED(\var{status})} is true, return the integer
parameter to the \manpage{exit}{2} system call. Otherwise, the return
value is meaningless.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{WSTOPSIG}{status}
Return the signal which caused the process to stop.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{WTERMSIG}{status}
Return the signal which caused the process to exit.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\code{confstr_names} dictionary. For configuration variables not
included in that mapping, passing an integer for \var{name} is also
accepted.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
If the configuration value specified by \var{name} isn't defined, the
empty string is returned.
parameter for \function{confstr()} apply here as well; the dictionary
that provides information on the known names is given by
\code{sysconf_names}.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{datadesc}{sysconf_names}
\strong{Do not import this module directly.} Instead, import the
module \refmodule{os}, which provides a \emph{portable} version of this
-interface. On \UNIX{}, the \refmodule{os} module provides a superset of
+interface. On \UNIX, the \refmodule{os} module provides a superset of
the \module{posix} interface. On non-\UNIX{} operating systems the
\module{posix} module is not available, but a subset is always
available through the \refmodule{os} interface. Once \refmodule{os} is
\sectionauthor{Jaap Vermeulen}{}
-\indexii{\POSIX{}}{file object}
+\indexii{\POSIX}{file object}
\deprecated{1.5}{The locking operation that this module provides is
done better and more portably by the
The module defines a new file object, the posixfile object. It
has all the standard file object methods and adds the methods
described below. This module only works for certain flavors of
-\UNIX{}, since it uses \function{fcntl.fcntl()} for file locking.%
+\UNIX, since it uses \function{fcntl.fcntl()} for file locking.%
\withsubitem{(in module fcntl)}{\ttindex{fcntl()}}
To instantiate a posixfile object, use the \function{open()} function
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{normcase}{path}
-Normalize the case of a pathname. On \UNIX{}, this returns the path
+Normalize the case of a pathname. On \UNIX, this returns the path
unchanged; on case-insensitive filesystems, it converts the path to
lowercase. On Windows, it also converts forward slashes to backward
slashes.
\begin{funcdesc}{realpath}{path}
Return the canonical path of the specified filename, eliminating any
symbolic links encountered in the path.
-Availability: \UNIX{}.
+Availability: \UNIX.
\versionadded{2.2}
\end{funcdesc}
directory (as indicated by device number and i-node number).
Raise an exception if a \function{os.stat()} call on either pathname
fails.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{sameopenfile}{fp1, fp2}
Return true if the file objects \var{fp1} and \var{fp2} refer to the
same file. The two file objects may represent different file
descriptors.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{samestat}{stat1, stat2}
\function{fstat()}, \function{lstat()}, or \function{stat()}. This
function implements the underlying comparison used by
\function{samefile()} and \function{sameopenfile()}.
-Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX{}.
+Availability: Macintosh, \UNIX.
\end{funcdesc}
\begin{funcdesc}{split}{path}
and \cfunction{poll()} functions
available in most operating systems. Note that on Windows, it only
works for sockets; on other operating systems, it also works for other
-file types (in particular, on \UNIX{}, it works on pipes). It cannot
+file types (in particular, on \UNIX, it works on pipes). It cannot
be used on regular files to determine whether a file has grown since
it was last read.
\subsection{Polling Objects
\label{poll-objects}}
-The \cfunction{poll()} system call, supported on most Unix systems,
+The \cfunction{poll()} system call, supported on most \UNIX{} systems,
provides better scalability for network servers that service many,
many clients at the same time.
\cfunction{poll()} scales better because the system call only
\code{sys.exec_prefix}; empty heads are skipped. For
the tail part, it uses the empty string (on Macintosh or Windows) or
it uses first \file{lib/python\shortversion/site-packages} and then
-\file{lib/site-python} (on \UNIX{}). For each of the distinct
+\file{lib/site-python} (on \UNIX). For each of the distinct
head-tail combinations, it sees if it refers to an existing directory,
and if so, adds to \code{sys.path}, and also inspects the path for
configuration files.
The interpretation of ``file size'' changes according to the file
type. For plain files this is the size of the file in bytes. For
-FIFOs and sockets under most Unixes (including Linux in particular),
-the ``size'' is the number of bytes waiting to be read at the time of
-the call to \function{os.stat()}, \function{os.fstat()}, or
-\function{os.lstat()}; this can sometimes be useful, especially for
+FIFOs and sockets under most flavors of \UNIX{} (including Linux in
+particular), the ``size'' is the number of bytes waiting to be read at
+the time of the call to \function{os.stat()}, \function{os.fstat()},
+or \function{os.lstat()}; this can sometimes be useful, especially for
polling one of these special files after a non-blocking open. The
meaning of the size field for other character and block devices varies
more, depending on the implementation of the underlying system call.
\code{<>} and \code{!=} are alternate spellings for the same operator.
(I couldn't choose between \ABC{} and C! :-)
\index{ABC language@\ABC{} language}
-\index{language!ABC@\ABC{}}
+\index{language!ABC@\ABC}
\indexii{C}{language}
\code{!=} is the preferred spelling; \code{<>} is obsolescent.
\begin{methoddesc}[file]{readlines}{\optional{sizehint}}
Read until \EOF{} using \method{readline()} and return a list containing
the lines thus read. If the optional \var{sizehint} argument is
- present, instead of reading up to \EOF{}, whole lines totalling
+ present, instead of reading up to \EOF, whole lines totalling
approximately \var{sizehint} bytes (possibly after rounding up to an
internal buffer size) are read. Objects implementing a file-like
interface may choose to ignore \var{sizehint} if it cannot be
the like. Most systems require it to be in the range 0-127, and
produce undefined results otherwise. Some systems have a convention
for assigning specific meanings to specific exit codes, but these
- are generally underdeveloped; Unix programs generally use 2 for
+ are generally underdeveloped; \UNIX{} programs generally use 2 for
command line syntax errors and 1 for all other kind of errors. If
another type of object is passed, \code{None} is equivalent to
passing zero, and any other object is printed to \code{sys.stderr}
\end{methoddesc}
\begin{methoddesc}{read_all}{}
-Read all data until \EOF{}; block until connection closed.
+Read all data until \EOF; block until connection closed.
\end{methoddesc}
\begin{methoddesc}{read_some}{}
When set to a value other than \code{None}, this variable defines the
directory in which filenames returned by \function{mktemp()} reside.
The default is taken from the environment variable \envvar{TMPDIR}; if
-this is not set, either \file{/usr/tmp} is used (on \UNIX{}), or the
+this is not set, either \file{/usr/tmp} is used (on \UNIX), or the
current working directory (all other systems). No check is made to
see whether its value is valid.
\end{datadesc}
prefix of the final component of the filenames returned by
\function{mktemp()}. A string of decimal digits is added to generate
unique filenames. The default is either \file{@\var{pid}.} where
-\var{pid} is the current process ID (on \UNIX{}),
+\var{pid} is the current process ID (on \UNIX),
\file{\textasciitilde\var{pid}-} on Windows NT, \file{Python-Tmp-} on
MacOS, or \file{tmp} (all other systems).
\platform{Unix}
\modulesynopsis{\POSIX\ style tty control.}
-\indexii{\POSIX{}}{I/O control}
+\indexii{\POSIX}{I/O control}
\indexii{tty}{I/O control}
\module{termios} module.}
-\indexii{\POSIX{}}{I/O control}
+\indexii{\POSIX}{I/O control}
\indexii{tty}{I/O control}
\deprecated{2.1}{Import needed constants from \refmodule{termios}
IRIX, Solaris 2.x, as well as on systems that have a \POSIX{} thread
(a.k.a. ``pthread'') implementation.
\index{pthreads}
-\indexii{threads}{\POSIX{}}
+\indexii{threads}{\POSIX}
It defines the following constant and functions:
\item
The \dfn{epoch}\index{epoch} is the point where the time starts. On
January 1st of that year, at 0 hours, the ``time since the epoch'' is
-zero. For \UNIX{}, the epoch is 1970. To find out what the epoch is,
+zero. For \UNIX, the epoch is 1970. To find out what the epoch is,
look at \code{gmtime(0)}.
\item
The functions in this module do not handle dates and times before the
epoch or far in the future. The cut-off point in the future is
-determined by the C library; for \UNIX{}, it is typically in
+determined by the C library; for \UNIX, it is typically in
2038\index{Year 2038}.
\item
cbreak and raw modes.
Because it requires the \refmodule{termios} module, it will work
-only on \UNIX{}.
+only on \UNIX.
The \module{tty} module defines the following functions:
The \module{Tkinter} module (``Tk interface'') is the standard Python
interface to the Tk GUI toolkit, now maintained at ActiveState. Both
-Tk and \module{Tkinter} are available on most Unix platforms, as well
+Tk and \module{Tkinter} are available on most \UNIX{} platforms, as well
as on Windows and Macintosh systems.
\begin{seealso}
\seetitle[http://www.wxwindows.org]{wxWindows}{
is a GUI toolkit that combines the most attractive attributes of Qt,
Tk, Motif, and GTK+ in one powerful and efficient package. It is
-implemented in \Cpp. wxWindows supports two flavors of Unix
+implemented in \Cpp. wxWindows supports two flavors of \UNIX{}
implementation: GTK+ and Motif, and under Windows, it has a standard
Microsoft Foundation Classes (MFC) appearance, because it uses Win32
widgets. There is a Python class wrapper, independent of Tkinter.
informal description of the symbol defined; e.g., this could be used
to describe the notion of `control character' if needed.
\index{lexical definitions}
-\index{ASCII@\ASCII{}}
+\index{ASCII@\ASCII}
Even though the notation used is almost the same, there is a big
difference between the meaning of lexical and syntactic definitions:
hexadecimal escape sequences.
The run-time character set depends on the I/O devices connected to the
-program but is generally a superset of \ASCII{}.
+program but is generally a superset of \ASCII.
\strong{Future compatibility note:} It may be tempting to assume that the
character set for 8-bit characters is ISO Latin-1 (an \ASCII{}
\subsection{Physical lines\label{physical}}
A physical line ends in whatever the current platform's convention is
-for terminating lines. On \UNIX{}, this is the \ASCII{} LF (linefeed)
+for terminating lines. On \UNIX, this is the \ASCII{} LF (linefeed)
character. On DOS/Windows, it is the \ASCII{} sequence CR LF (return
followed by linefeed). On Macintosh, it is the \ASCII{} CR (return)
character.
First, tabs are replaced (from left to right) by one to eight spaces
such that the total number of characters up to and including the
replacement is a multiple of
-eight (this is intended to be the same rule as used by \UNIX{}). The
+eight (this is intended to be the same rule as used by \UNIX). The
total number of spaces preceding the first non-blank character then
determines the line's indentation. Indentation cannot be split over
multiple physical lines using backslashes; the whitespace up to the
String literals are described by the following lexical definitions:
\index{string literal}
-\index{ASCII@\ASCII{}}
+\index{ASCII@\ASCII}
\begin{productionlist}
\production{stringliteral}
{[\token{stringprefix}](\token{shortstring} | \token{longstring})}
\lineii{\e\var{ooo}} {\ASCII{} character with octal value \var{ooo}}
\lineii{\e x\var{hh}} {\ASCII{} character with hex value \var{hh}}
\end{tableii}
-\index{ASCII@\ASCII{}}
+\index{ASCII@\ASCII}
As in Standard C, up to three octal digits are accepted. However,
exactly two hex digits are taken in hex escapes.
The second half of the list, the augmented assignment operators, serve
lexically as delimiters, but also perform an operation.
-The following printing ASCII characters have special meaning as part
+The following printing \ASCII{} characters have special meaning as part
of other tokens or are otherwise significant to the lexical analyzer:
\begin{verbatim}
The following printing \ASCII{} characters are not used in Python. Their
occurrence outside string literals and comments is an unconditional
error:
-\index{ASCII@\ASCII{}}
+\index{ASCII@\ASCII}
\begin{verbatim}
@ $ ?
\obindex{string}
\index{character}
\index{byte}
-\index{ASCII@\ASCII{}}
+\index{ASCII@\ASCII}
-(On systems whose native character set is not \ASCII{}, strings may use
+(On systems whose native character set is not \ASCII, strings may use
EBCDIC in their internal representation, provided the functions
\function{chr()} and \function{ord()} implement a mapping between \ASCII{} and
EBCDIC, and string comparison preserves the \ASCII{} order.
Or perhaps someone can propose a better rule?)
-\index{ASCII@\ASCII{}}
+\index{ASCII@\ASCII}
\index{EBCDIC}
\index{character set}
\indexii{string}{comparison}
\citetitle[../lib/lib.html]{Python Library Reference} document. The
\citetitle[../ref/ref.html]{Python Reference Manual} gives a more
formal definition of the language. To write extensions in C or
-\Cpp{}, read \citetitle[../ext/ext.html]{Extending and Embedding the
+\Cpp, read \citetitle[../ext/ext.html]{Extending and Embedding the
Python Interpreter} and \citetitle[../api/api.html]{Python/C API
Reference}. There are also several books covering Python in depth.
\samp{import sys; sys.exit()}.
The interpreter's line-editing features usually aren't very
-sophisticated. On \UNIX{}, whoever installed the interpreter may have
+sophisticated. On \UNIX, whoever installed the interpreter may have
enabled support for the GNU readline library, which adds more
elaborate interactive editing and history features. Perhaps the
quickest check to see whether command line editing is supported is
the shell variable \envvar{PATH}, that is, a list of
directory names. When \envvar{PYTHONPATH} is not set, or when the file
is not found there, the search continues in an installation-dependent
-default path; on \UNIX{}, this is usually \file{.:/usr/local/lib/python}.
+default path; on \UNIX, this is usually \file{.:/usr/local/lib/python}.
Actually, modules are searched in the list of directories given by the
variable \code{sys.path} which is initialized from the directory
Sound.Effects import echo}.
%(One could design a notation to refer to parent packages, similar to
-%the use of ".." to refer to the parent directory in Unix and Windows
+%the use of ".." to refer to the parent directory in \UNIX{} and Windows
%filesystems. In fact, the \module{ni} module, which was the
%ancestor of this package system, supported this using \code{__} for
%the package containing the current module,
Lacking universally accepted terminology to talk about classes, I will
make occasional use of Smalltalk and \Cpp{} terms. (I would use Modula-3
terms, since its object-oriented semantics are closer to those of
-Python than \Cpp{}, but I expect that few readers have heard of it.)
+Python than \Cpp, but I expect that few readers have heard of it.)
I also have to warn you that there's a terminological pitfall for
object-oriented readers: the word ``object'' in Python does not
The first I'll call \emph{data attributes}. These correspond to
``instance variables'' in Smalltalk, and to ``data members'' in
-\Cpp{}. Data attributes need not be declared; like local variables,
+\Cpp. Data attributes need not be declared; like local variables,
they spring into existence when they are first assigned to. For
example, if \code{x} is the instance of \class{MyClass} created above,
the following piece of code will print the value \code{16}, without
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