repository of open source licensed packages made available for use by
other Python users
* the `Python Packaging Authority
- <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/future.html>`__ are the group of
+ <https://www.pypa.io/>`__ are the group of
developers and documentation authors responsible for the maintenance and
evolution of the standard packaging tools and the associated metadata and
file format standards. They maintain a variety of tools, documentation
locally.
.. _setuptools: https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/setuptools.html
-.. _wheel: http://wheel.readthedocs.org
+.. _wheel: https://wheel.readthedocs.org
Open source licensing and collaboration
=======================================
The Python Packaging User Guide includes more details on the `currently
recommended tools`_.
-.. _currently recommended tools: https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/current.html#packaging-tool-recommendations
+.. _currently recommended tools: https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/current/#packaging-tool-recommendations
Reading the guide
=================
* `Uploading the project to the Python Packaging Index`_
.. _Project structure: \
- https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/distributing.html#creating-your-own-project
+ https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/distributing/
.. _Building and packaging the project: \
- https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/distributing.html#packaging-your-project
+ https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/distributing/#packaging-your-project
.. _Uploading the project to the Python Packaging Index: \
- https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/distributing.html#uploading-your-project-to-pypi
+ https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/distributing/#uploading-your-project-to-pypi
How do I...?
.. seealso::
`Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions
- <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/extensions.html>`__
+ <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/extensions>`__
.. other topics:
Once the Development & Deployment part of PPUG is fleshed out, some of
those sections should be linked from new questions here (most notably,
we should have a question about avoiding depending on PyPI that links to
- https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/deployment.html#pypi-mirrors-and-caches)
+ https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/mirrors/)
Builds a `Windows Installer`_ (.msi) binary package.
- .. _Windows Installer: http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc185688(VS.85).aspx
+ .. _Windows Installer: https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc185688(VS.85).aspx
In most cases, the ``bdist_msi`` installer is a better choice than the
``bdist_wininst`` installer, because it provides better support for
avoid writing C extensions and preserve portability to other implementations.
For example, if your use case is calling C library functions or system calls,
you should consider using the :mod:`ctypes` module or the `cffi
- <http://cffi.readthedocs.org>`_ library rather than writing custom C code.
+ <https://cffi.readthedocs.org>`_ library rather than writing custom C code.
These modules let you write Python code to interface with C code and are more
portable between implementations of Python than writing and compiling a C
extension module.
.. seealso::
- `Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/extensions.html>`_
+ `Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/extensions/>`_
The Python Packaging User Guide not only covers several available
tools that simplify the creation of binary extensions, but also
discusses the various reasons why creating an extension module may be
`Cython <http://cython.org/>`_ and `Pyrex <http://www.cosc.canterbury.ac.nz/greg.ewing/python/Pyrex/>`_
compile a modified version of Python with optional annotations into C
-extensions. `Weave <http://docs.scipy.org/doc/scipy-dev/reference/tutorial/weave.html>`_ makes it easy to
+extensions. `Weave <https://scipy.github.io/devdocs/tutorial/weave.html>`_ makes it easy to
intermingle Python and C code in various ways to increase performance.
`Nuitka <http://www.nuitka.net/>`_ is an up-and-coming compiler of Python
into C++ code, aiming to support the full Python language.
If you need to interface to some C or C++ library for which no Python extension
currently exists, you can try wrapping the library's data types and functions
with a tool such as `SWIG <http://www.swig.org>`_. `SIP
-<http://www.riverbankcomputing.co.uk/software/sip/intro>`__, `CXX
+<https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/sip/intro>`__, `CXX
<http://cxx.sourceforge.net/>`_ `Boost
<http://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html>`_, or `Weave
-<http://docs.scipy.org/doc/scipy-dev/reference/tutorial/weave.html>`_ are also
+<https://scipy.github.io/devdocs/tutorial/weave.html>`_ are also
alternatives for wrapping C++ libraries.
--------------------------------------------
The latest Python source distribution is always available from python.org, at
-https://www.python.org/download/. The latest development sources can be obtained
+https://www.python.org/downloads/. The latest development sources can be obtained
via anonymous Mercurial access at https://hg.python.org/cpython.
The source distribution is a gzipped tar file containing the complete C source,
How do I get a beta test version of Python?
-------------------------------------------
-Alpha and beta releases are available from https://www.python.org/download/. All
+Alpha and beta releases are available from https://www.python.org/downloads/. All
releases are announced on the comp.lang.python and comp.lang.python.announce
newsgroups and on the Python home page at https://www.python.org/; an RSS feed of
news is available.
`www.python.org <https://www.python.org>`_ is graciously hosted by `Rackspace
<http://www.rackspace.com>`_, with CDN caching provided by `Fastly
<https://www.fastly.com>`_. `Upfront Systems
-<http://www.upfrontsystems.co.za>`_ hosts `bugs.python.org
+<http://www.upfrontsystems.co.za/>`_ hosts `bugs.python.org
<https://bugs.python.org>`_. Many other Python services like `the Wiki
<https://wiki.python.org>`_ are hosted by `Oregon State
University Open Source Lab <https://osuosl.org>`_.
When he began implementing Python, Guido van Rossum was also reading the
published scripts from `"Monty Python's Flying Circus"
-<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python>`__, a BBC comedy series from the 1970s. Van Rossum
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python>`__, a BBC comedy series from the 1970s. Van Rossum
thought he needed a name that was short, unique, and slightly mysterious, so he
decided to call the language Python.
releases.
The latest stable releases can always be found on the `Python download page
-<https://www.python.org/download/>`_. There are two recommended production-ready
+<https://www.python.org/downloads/>`_. There are two recommended production-ready
versions at this point in time, because at the moment there are two branches of
stable releases: 2.x and 3.x. Python 3.x may be less useful than 2.x, since
currently there is more third party software available for Python 2 than for
High-profile Python projects include `the Mailman mailing list manager
<http://www.list.org>`_ and `the Zope application server
<http://www.zope.org>`_. Several Linux distributions, most notably `Red Hat
-<http://www.redhat.com>`_, have written part or all of their installer and
+<https://www.redhat.com>`_, have written part or all of their installer and
system administration software in Python. Companies that use Python internally
include Google, Yahoo, and Lucasfilm Ltd.
Standard builds of Python include an object-oriented interface to the Tcl/Tk
widget set, called :ref:`tkinter <Tkinter>`. This is probably the easiest to
install (since it comes included with most
-`binary distributions <https://www.python.org/download/>`_ of Python) and use.
+`binary distributions <https://www.python.org/downloads/>`_ of Python) and use.
For more info about Tk, including pointers to the source, see the
`Tcl/Tk home page <http://www.tcl.tk>`_. Tcl/Tk is fully portable to the
Mac OS X, Windows, and Unix platforms.
---
There are bindings available for the Qt toolkit (using either `PyQt
-<http://www.riverbankcomputing.co.uk/software/pyqt/intro>`_ or `PySide
-<http://www.pyside.org/>`_) and for KDE (`PyKDE <https://techbase.kde.org/Development/Languages/Python>`__).
+<https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/intro>`_ or `PySide
+<https://wiki.qt.io/PySide>`_) and for KDE (`PyKDE <https://techbase.kde.org/Development/Languages/Python>`__).
PyQt is currently more mature than PySide, but you must buy a PyQt license from
-`Riverbank Computing <http://www.riverbankcomputing.co.uk/software/pyqt/license>`_
+`Riverbank Computing <https://www.riverbankcomputing.com/commercial/license-faq>`_
if you want to write proprietary applications. PySide is free for all applications.
Qt 4.5 upwards is licensed under the LGPL license; also, commercial licenses
-are available from `The Qt Company <http://www.qt.io/licensing/>`_.
+are available from `The Qt Company <https://www.qt.io/licensing/>`_.
Gtk+
----
-The `GObject introspection bindings <https://live.gnome.org/PyGObject>`_
+The `GObject introspection bindings <https://wiki.gnome.org/Projects/PyGObject>`_
for Python allow you to write GTK+ 3 applications. There is also a
`Python GTK+ 3 Tutorial <http://python-gtk-3-tutorial.readthedocs.org/en/latest/>`_.
For Unix, see a Usenet post by Mitch Chapman:
- http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=34A04430.CF9@ohioee.com
+ https://groups.google.com/groups?selm=34A04430.CF9@ohioee.com
Why doesn't closing sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) really close it?
warns about code complexity and style. You can get PyChecker from
http://pychecker.sourceforge.net/.
-`Pylint <http://www.logilab.org/projects/pylint>`_ is another tool that checks
+`Pylint <http://www.pylint.org/>`_ is another tool that checks
if a module satisfies a coding standard, and also makes it possible to write
plug-ins to add a custom feature. In addition to the bug checking that
PyChecker performs, Pylint offers some additional features such as checking line
a lengthy tutorial for C programmers.
* `The ncurses man page <http://linux.die.net/man/3/ncurses>`_
* `The ncurses FAQ <http://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses.faq.html>`_
-* `"Use curses... don't swear" <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eN1eZtjLEnU>`_:
+* `"Use curses... don't swear" <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eN1eZtjLEnU>`_:
video of a PyCon 2013 talk on controlling terminals using curses or Urwid.
* `"Console Applications with Urwid" <http://www.pyvideo.org/video/1568/console-applications-with-urwid>`_:
video of a PyCon CA 2012 talk demonstrating some applications written using
List comprehensions and generator expressions (short form: "listcomps" and
"genexps") are a concise notation for such operations, borrowed from the
-functional programming language Haskell (http://www.haskell.org/). You can strip
+functional programming language Haskell (https://www.haskell.org/). You can strip
all the whitespace from a stream of strings with the following code::
line_list = [' line 1\n', 'line 2 \n', ...]
It doesn't construct an in-memory list and exhaust all the input iterators
before returning; instead tuples are constructed and returned only if they're
requested. (The technical term for this behaviour is `lazy evaluation
-<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_evaluation>`__.)
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_evaluation>`__.)
This iterator is intended to be used with iterables that are all of the same
length. If the iterables are of different lengths, the resulting stream will be
**Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs**, by Harold Abelson and
Gerald Jay Sussman with Julie Sussman. Full text at
-http://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/. In this classic textbook of computer science,
+https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/. In this classic textbook of computer science,
chapters 2 and 3 discuss the use of sequences and streams to organize the data
flow inside a program. The book uses Scheme for its examples, but many of the
design approaches described in these chapters are applicable to functional-style
http://www.defmacro.org/ramblings/fp.html: A general introduction to functional
programming that uses Java examples and has a lengthy historical introduction.
-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming: General Wikipedia entry
+https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming: General Wikipedia entry
describing functional programming.
-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine: Entry for coroutines.
+https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine: Entry for coroutines.
-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying: Entry for the concept of currying.
+https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying: Entry for the concept of currying.
Python-specific
---------------
-----------------------------------------
Below is an example of a logging configuration dictionary - it's taken from
-the `documentation on the Django project <https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/1.3/topics/logging/#configuring-logging>`_.
+the `documentation on the Django project <https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/1.4/topics/logging/#configuring-logging>`_.
This dictionary is passed to :func:`~config.dictConfig` to put the configuration into effect::
LOGGING = {
If your logging needs are simple, then use the above examples to incorporate
logging into your own scripts, and if you run into problems or don't
understand something, please post a question on the comp.lang.python Usenet
-group (available at http://groups.google.com/group/comp.lang.python) and you
+group (available at https://groups.google.com/group/comp.lang.python) and you
should receive help before too long.
Still here? You can carry on reading the next few sections, which provide a
================================
Sorts are guaranteed to be `stable
-<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorting_algorithm#Stability>`_\. That means that
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorting_algorithm#Stability>`_\. That means that
when multiple records have the same key, their original order is preserved.
>>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)]
>>> sorted(s, key=attrgetter('grade'), reverse=True) # now sort on primary key, descending
[('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)]
-The `Timsort <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort>`_ algorithm used in Python
+The `Timsort <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort>`_ algorithm used in Python
does multiple sorts efficiently because it can take advantage of any ordering
already present in a dataset.
directly.
Another name for this idiom is
-`Schwartzian transform <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwartzian_transform>`_\,
+`Schwartzian transform <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwartzian_transform>`_\,
after Randal L. Schwartz, who popularized it among Perl programmers.
Now that Python sorting provides key-functions, this technique is not often needed.
precise historical details aren't necessary for understanding how to
use Unicode effectively, but if you're curious, consult the Unicode
consortium site listed in the References or
-the `Wikipedia entry for Unicode <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode#History>`_
+the `Wikipedia entry for Unicode <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode#History>`_
for more information.)
reading this alternate article before continuing.
Wikipedia entries are often helpful; see the entries for "`character encoding
-<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding>`_" and `UTF-8
-<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8>`_, for example.
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding>`_" and `UTF-8
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8>`_, for example.
Python's Unicode Support
Each web server requires a specific module.
* Apache has both `mod_fastcgi <http://www.fastcgi.com/drupal/>`_ and `mod_fcgid
- <http://httpd.apache.org/mod_fcgid/>`_. ``mod_fastcgi`` is the original one, but it
+ <https://httpd.apache.org/mod_fcgid/>`_. ``mod_fastcgi`` is the original one, but it
has some licensing issues, which is why it is sometimes considered non-free.
``mod_fcgid`` is a smaller, compatible alternative. One of these modules needs
to be loaded by Apache.
`SCGI module <http://redmine.lighttpd.net/projects/lighttpd/wiki/Docs_ModSCGI>`_.
* `nginx <http://nginx.org/>`_ also supports `FastCGI
- <http://wiki.nginx.org/NginxSimplePythonFCGI>`_.
+ <https://www.nginx.com/resources/wiki/start/topics/examples/simplepythonfcgi/>`_.
Once you have installed and configured the module, you can test it with the
following WSGI-application::
.. seealso::
- There is some documentation on `setting up Django with FastCGI
- <https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/dev/howto/deployment/fastcgi/>`_, most of
+ There is some documentation on `setting up Django with WSGI
+ <https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/dev/howto/deployment/wsgi/>`_, most of
which can be reused for other WSGI-compliant frameworks and libraries.
Only the ``manage.py`` part has to be changed, the example used here can be
used instead. Django does more or less the exact same thing.
A really great WSGI feature is middleware. Middleware is a layer around your
program which can add various functionality to it. There is quite a bit of
-`middleware <http://www.wsgi.org/en/latest/libraries.html>`_ already
+`middleware <https://wsgi.readthedocs.org/en/latest/libraries.html>`_ already
available. For example, instead of writing your own session management (HTTP
is a stateless protocol, so to associate multiple HTTP requests with a single
user your application must create and manage such state via a session), you can
The code that is used to connect to various low level gateways like CGI or
mod_python is called a *WSGI server*. One of these servers is ``flup``, which
supports FastCGI and SCGI, as well as `AJP
-<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_JServ_Protocol>`_. Some of these servers
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_JServ_Protocol>`_. Some of these servers
are written in Python, as ``flup`` is, but there also exist others which are
written in C and can be used as drop-in replacements.
.. seealso::
A good overview of WSGI-related code can be found in the `WSGI homepage
- <http://www.wsgi.org/en/latest/index.html>`_, which contains an extensive list of `WSGI servers
- <http://www.wsgi.org/en/latest/servers.html>`_ which can be used by *any* application
+ <https://wsgi.readthedocs.org/>`_, which contains an extensive list of `WSGI servers
+ <https://wsgi.readthedocs.org/en/latest/servers.html>`_ which can be used by *any* application
supporting WSGI.
You might be interested in some WSGI-supporting modules already contained in
Python without using WSGI.
One of the most widely used wiki software packages is `MoinMoin
-<http://moinmo.in/>`_. It was created in 2000, so it predates WSGI by about
+<https://moinmo.in/>`_. It was created in 2000, so it predates WSGI by about
three years. Older versions needed separate code to run on CGI, mod_python,
FastCGI and standalone.
.. seealso::
The English Wikipedia has an article about the `Model-View-Controller pattern
- <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-view-controller>`_. It includes a long
+ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model%E2%80%93view%E2%80%93controller>`_. It includes a long
list of web frameworks for various programming languages.
smaller sites SQLite is just enough.
Relational databases are *queried* using a language called `SQL
-<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL>`_. Python programmers in general do not
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL>`_. Python programmers in general do not
like SQL too much, as they prefer to work with objects. It is possible to save
Python objects into a database using a technology called `ORM
-<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-relational_mapping>`_ (Object Relational
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-relational_mapping>`_ (Object Relational
Mapping). ORM translates all object-oriented access into SQL code under the
hood, so the developer does not need to think about it. Most `frameworks`_ use
ORMs, and it works quite well.
helps with choosing a method for saving data
* `SQLAlchemy <http://www.sqlalchemy.org/>`_, the most powerful OR-Mapper
- for Python, and `Elixir <http://elixir.ematia.de/>`_, which makes
+ for Python, and `Elixir <https://pypi.python.org/pypi/Elixir>`_, which makes
SQLAlchemy easier to use
* `SQLObject <http://www.sqlobject.org/>`_, another popular OR-Mapper
* `ZODB <https://launchpad.net/zodb>`_ and `Durus
- <http://www.mems-exchange.org/software/durus/>`_, two object oriented
+ <https://www.mems-exchange.org/software/>`_, two object oriented
databases
example the ORM and template engine can be changed to use packages different
from those used by default.
-The documentation can be found in the `TurboGears wiki
-<http://docs.turbogears.org/>`_, where links to screencasts can be found.
+The documentation can be found in the `TurboGears documentation
+<https://turbogears.readthedocs.org/>`_, where links to screencasts can be found.
TurboGears has also an active user community which can respond to most related
-questions. There is also a `TurboGears book <http://turbogearsbook.com/>`_
+questions. There is also a `TurboGears book <http://turbogears.org/1.0/docs/TGBooks.html>`_
published, which is a good starting point.
The newest version of TurboGears, version 2.0, moves even further in direction
repository of open source licensed packages made available for use by
other Python users
* the `Python Packaging Authority
- <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/future.html>`__ are the group of
+ <https://www.pypa.io/en/latest/>`__ are the group of
developers and documentation authors responsible for the maintenance and
evolution of the standard packaging tools and the associated metadata and
file format standards. They maintain a variety of tools, documentation
.. seealso::
`Python Packaging User Guide: Installing Python Distribution Packages
- <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/installing.html#installing-python-distribution-packages>`__
+ <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/installing/>`__
How do I ...?
.. seealso::
- `Python Packaging User Guide: Setup for Installing Distribution Packages
- <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/installing.html#setup-for-installing-distribution-packages>`__
+ `Python Packaging User Guide: Requirements for Installing Packages
+ <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/installing/#requirements-for-installing-packages>`__
.. installing-per-user-installation:
aren't currently easy to install using ``pip`` directly. At this point in
time, it will often be easier for users to install these packages by
`other means
-<https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/science.html>`__
+<https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/science/>`__
rather than attempting to install them with ``pip``.
.. seealso::
`Python Packaging User Guide: Installing Scientific Packages
- <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/science.html>`__
+ <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/science/>`__
... work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?
Once the Development & Deployment part of PPUG is fleshed out, some of
those sections should be linked from new questions here (most notably,
we should have a question about avoiding depending on PyPI that links to
- https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/deployment.html#pypi-mirrors-and-caches)
+ https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/mirrors/)
Common installation issues
than needing to build them themselves.
Some of the solutions for installing `scientific software
-<https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/science.html>`__
+<https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/science/>`__
that is not yet available as pre-built ``wheel`` files may also help with
obtaining other binary extensions without needing to build them locally.
.. seealso::
`Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions
- <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/extensions.html>`__
+ <https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/extensions/>`__
On Windows, only sockets are supported (ex: pipes are not supported):
see the `MSDN documentation of select
- <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms740141%28v=vs.85%29.aspx>`_.
+ <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms740141%28v=vs.85%29.aspx>`_.
.. class:: ProactorEventLoop
.. seealso::
`MSDN documentation on I/O Completion Ports
- <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa365198%28v=vs.85%29.aspx>`_.
+ <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa365198%28v=vs.85%29.aspx>`_.
Example to use a :class:`ProactorEventLoop` on Windows::
The resolution of the monotonic clock on Windows is usually around 15.6 msec.
The best resolution is 0.5 msec. The resolution depends on the hardware
(availability of `HPET
-<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Precision_Event_Timer>`_) and on the Windows
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Precision_Event_Timer>`_) and on the Windows
configuration. See :ref:`asyncio delayed calls <asyncio-delayed-calls>`.
.. versionchanged:: 3.5
It is the application's responsibility to ensure that all whitespace and
metacharacters are quoted appropriately to avoid `shell injection
- <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection>`_
+ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection>`_
vulnerabilities. The :func:`shlex.quote` function can be used to properly
escape whitespace and shell metacharacters in strings that are going to be
used to construct shell commands.
It is the application's responsibility to ensure that all whitespace and
metacharacters are quoted appropriately to avoid `shell injection
- <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection>`_
+ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection>`_
vulnerabilities. The :func:`shlex.quote` function can be used to properly
escape whitespace and shell metacharacters in strings that are going to be
used to construct shell commands.
.. seealso::
- * `Bag class <http://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/manual-base/html_node/Bag.html>`_
+ * `Bag class <https://www.gnu.org/software/smalltalk/manual-base/html_node/Bag.html>`_
in Smalltalk.
- * Wikipedia entry for `Multisets <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset>`_.
+ * Wikipedia entry for `Multisets <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset>`_.
- * `C++ multisets <http://www.demo2s.com/Tutorial/Cpp/0380__set-multiset/Catalog0380__set-multiset.htm>`_
+ * `C++ multisets <http://www.java2s.com/Tutorial/Cpp/0380__set-multiset/Catalog0380__set-multiset.htm>`_
tutorial with examples.
* For mathematical operations on multisets and their use cases, see
:mod:`dbm` is a generic interface to variants of the DBM database ---
:mod:`dbm.gnu` or :mod:`dbm.ndbm`. If none of these modules is installed, the
slow-but-simple implementation in module :mod:`dbm.dumb` will be used. There
-is a `third party interface <http://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm>`_ to
+is a `third party interface <https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm>`_ to
the Oracle Berkeley DB.
* IBM's General Decimal Arithmetic Specification, `The General Decimal Arithmetic
Specification <http://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html>`_.
- * IEEE standard 854-1987, `Unofficial IEEE 854 Text
- <http://754r.ucbtest.org/standards/854.pdf>`_.
-
.. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
followed by a space at the beginning of the line. This is the only guaranteed
portable way to avoid having such lines be mistaken for a Unix mailbox format
envelope header separator (see `WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH FORMAT IS BAD
- <http://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html>`_ for details). *mangle_from_*
+ <https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html>`_ for details). *mangle_from_*
defaults to ``True``, but you might want to set this to ``False`` if you are not
writing Unix mailbox format files.
i.e. ``From`` followed by a space at the beginning of the line. This is the
only guaranteed portable way to avoid having such lines be mistaken for a
Unix mailbox format envelope header separator (see `WHY THE CONTENT-LENGTH
- FORMAT IS BAD <http://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html>`_ for details).
+ FORMAT IS BAD <https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html>`_ for details).
*mangle_from_* defaults to ``True``, but you might want to set this to
``False`` if you are not writing Unix mailbox format files.
For practical suggestions on how to design cooperative classes using
:func:`super`, see `guide to using super()
- <http://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/>`_.
+ <https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/05/26/super-considered-super/>`_.
.. _func-tuple:
bypassing the cache, or for rewrapping the function with a different cache.
An `LRU (least recently used) cache
- <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_algorithms#Examples>`_ works
+ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_algorithms#Examples>`_ works
best when the most recent calls are the best predictors of upcoming calls (for
example, the most popular articles on a news server tend to change each day).
The cache's size limit assures that the cache does not grow without bound on
CacheInfo(hits=3, misses=8, maxsize=32, currsize=8)
Example of efficiently computing
- `Fibonacci numbers <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number>`_
+ `Fibonacci numbers <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number>`_
using a cache to implement a
- `dynamic programming <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_programming>`_
+ `dynamic programming <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_programming>`_
technique::
@lru_cache(maxsize=None)
Basic Examples
--------------
-A `heapsort <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heapsort>`_ can be implemented by
+A `heapsort <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heapsort>`_ can be implemented by
pushing all values onto a heap and then popping off the smallest values one at a
time::
Priority Queue Implementation Notes
-----------------------------------
-A `priority queue <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_queue>`_ is common use
+A `priority queue <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priority_queue>`_ is common use
for a heap, and it presents several implementation challenges:
* Sort stability: how do you get two tasks with equal priorities to be returned
.. seealso::
- The `Requests package <http://requests.readthedocs.org/>`_
+ The `Requests package <https://requests.readthedocs.org/>`_
is recommended for a higher-level http client interface.
.. note::
:func:`min` for a running minimum, :func:`max` for a running maximum, or
:func:`operator.mul` for a running product. Amortization tables can be
built by accumulating interest and applying payments. First-order
- `recurrence relations <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrence_relation>`_
+ `recurrence relations <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recurrence_relation>`_
can be modeled by supplying the initial value in the iterable and using only
the accumulated total in *func* argument::
>>> list(accumulate(cashflows, lambda bal, pmt: bal*1.05 + pmt))
[1000, 960.0, 918.0, 873.9000000000001, 827.5950000000001]
- # Chaotic recurrence relation http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_map
+ # Chaotic recurrence relation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistic_map
>>> logistic_map = lambda x, _: r * x * (1 - x)
>>> r = 3.8
>>> x0 = 0.4
:rfc:`7159` (which obsoletes :rfc:`4627`) and by
`ECMA-404 <http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-404.htm>`_,
is a lightweight data interchange format inspired by
-`JavaScript <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript>`_ object literal syntax
+`JavaScript <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript>`_ object literal syntax
(although it is not a strict subset of JavaScript [#rfc-errata]_ ).
:mod:`json` exposes an API familiar to users of the standard library
The proposal which described this feature for inclusion in the Python standard
library.
- `Original Python logging package <http://www.red-dove.com/python_logging.html>`_
+ `Original Python logging package <https://www.red-dove.com/python_logging.html>`_
This is the original source for the :mod:`logging` package. The version of the
package available from this site is suitable for use with Python 1.5.2, 2.1.x
and 2.2.x, which do not include the :mod:`logging` package in the standard
`mbox man page from tin <http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mbox>`_
Another specification of the format, with details on locking.
- `Configuring Netscape Mail on Unix: Why The Content-Length Format is Bad <http://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html>`_
+ `Configuring Netscape Mail on Unix: Why The Content-Length Format is Bad <https://www.jwz.org/doc/content-length.html>`_
An argument for using the original mbox format rather than a variation.
`"mbox" is a family of several mutually incompatible mailbox formats <http://homepage.ntlworld.com/jonathan.deboynepollard/FGA/mail-mbox-formats.html>`_
`mmdf man page from tin <http://www.tin.org/bin/man.cgi?section=5&topic=mmdf>`_
A specification of MMDF format from the documentation of tin, a newsreader.
- `MMDF <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMDF>`_
+ `MMDF <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MMDF>`_
A Wikipedia article describing the Multichannel Memorandum Distribution
Facility.
For further discussion and two alternative approaches, see the `ASPN cookbook
recipes for accurate floating point summation
- <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/393090/>`_\.
+ <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/393090/>`_\.
.. function:: gcd(a, b)
Return ``e**x - 1``. For small floats *x*, the subtraction in ``exp(x) - 1``
can result in a `significant loss of precision
- <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance>`_\; the :func:`expm1`
+ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance>`_\; the :func:`expm1`
function provides a way to compute this quantity to full precision::
>>> from math import exp, expm1
Hyperbolic functions
--------------------
-`Hyperbolic functions <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_function>`_
+`Hyperbolic functions <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_function>`_
are analogs of trigonometric functions that are based on hyperbolas
instead of circles.
.. function:: erf(x)
- Return the `error function <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function>`_ at
+ Return the `error function <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function>`_ at
*x*.
The :func:`erf` function can be used to compute traditional statistical
functions such as the `cumulative standard normal distribution
- <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution#Cumulative_distribution_function>`_::
+ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution#Cumulative_distribution_function>`_::
def phi(x):
'Cumulative distribution function for the standard normal distribution'
.. function:: erfc(x)
Return the complementary error function at *x*. The `complementary error
- function <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function>`_ is defined as
+ function <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function>`_ is defined as
``1.0 - erf(x)``. It is used for large values of *x* where a subtraction
from one would cause a `loss of significance
- <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance>`_\.
+ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_of_significance>`_\.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. function:: gamma(x)
- Return the `Gamma function <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function>`_ at
+ Return the `Gamma function <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function>`_ at
*x*.
.. versionadded:: 3.2
.. seealso::
- `FCICreateFile <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/devnotes/winprog/fcicreate.asp>`_
- `UuidCreate <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/rpc/rpc/uuidcreate.asp>`_
- `UuidToString <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/rpc/rpc/uuidtostring.asp>`_
+ `FCICreateFile <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/devnotes/winprog/fcicreate.asp>`_
+ `UuidCreate <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/rpc/rpc/uuidcreate.asp>`_
+ `UuidToString <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/rpc/rpc/uuidtostring.asp>`_
.. _database-objects:
.. seealso::
- `MSIDatabaseOpenView <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msidatabaseopenview.asp>`_
- `MSIDatabaseCommit <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msidatabasecommit.asp>`_
- `MSIGetSummaryInformation <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msigetsummaryinformation.asp>`_
+ `MSIDatabaseOpenView <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msidatabaseopenview.asp>`_
+ `MSIDatabaseCommit <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msidatabasecommit.asp>`_
+ `MSIGetSummaryInformation <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msigetsummaryinformation.asp>`_
.. _view-objects:
.. seealso::
- `MsiViewExecute <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msiviewexecute.asp>`_
- `MSIViewGetColumnInfo <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msiviewgetcolumninfo.asp>`_
- `MsiViewFetch <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msiviewfetch.asp>`_
- `MsiViewModify <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msiviewmodify.asp>`_
- `MsiViewClose <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msiviewclose.asp>`_
+ `MsiViewExecute <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msiviewexecute.asp>`_
+ `MSIViewGetColumnInfo <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msiviewgetcolumninfo.asp>`_
+ `MsiViewFetch <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msiviewfetch.asp>`_
+ `MsiViewModify <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msiviewmodify.asp>`_
+ `MsiViewClose <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msiviewclose.asp>`_
.. _summary-objects:
.. seealso::
- `MsiSummaryInfoGetProperty <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msisummaryinfogetproperty.asp>`_
- `MsiSummaryInfoGetPropertyCount <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msisummaryinfogetpropertycount.asp>`_
- `MsiSummaryInfoSetProperty <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msisummaryinfosetproperty.asp>`_
- `MsiSummaryInfoPersist <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msisummaryinfopersist.asp>`_
+ `MsiSummaryInfoGetProperty <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msisummaryinfogetproperty.asp>`_
+ `MsiSummaryInfoGetPropertyCount <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msisummaryinfogetpropertycount.asp>`_
+ `MsiSummaryInfoSetProperty <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msisummaryinfosetproperty.asp>`_
+ `MsiSummaryInfoPersist <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msisummaryinfopersist.asp>`_
.. _record-objects:
.. seealso::
- `MsiRecordGetFieldCount <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msirecordgetfieldcount.asp>`_
- `MsiRecordSetString <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msirecordsetstring.asp>`_
- `MsiRecordSetStream <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msirecordsetstream.asp>`_
- `MsiRecordSetInteger <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msirecordsetinteger.asp>`_
- `MsiRecordClear <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msirecordclear.asp>`_
+ `MsiRecordGetFieldCount <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msirecordgetfieldcount.asp>`_
+ `MsiRecordSetString <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msirecordsetstring.asp>`_
+ `MsiRecordSetStream <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msirecordsetstream.asp>`_
+ `MsiRecordSetInteger <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msirecordsetinteger.asp>`_
+ `MsiRecordClear <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/msirecordclear.asp>`_
.. _msi-errors:
.. seealso::
- `Directory Table <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/directory_table.asp>`_
- `File Table <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/file_table.asp>`_
- `Component Table <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/component_table.asp>`_
- `FeatureComponents Table <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/featurecomponents_table.asp>`_
+ `Directory Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/directory_table.asp>`_
+ `File Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/file_table.asp>`_
+ `Component Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/component_table.asp>`_
+ `FeatureComponents Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/featurecomponents_table.asp>`_
.. _features:
.. seealso::
- `Feature Table <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/feature_table.asp>`_
+ `Feature Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/feature_table.asp>`_
.. _msi-gui:
.. seealso::
- `Dialog Table <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/dialog_table.asp>`_
- `Control Table <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/control_table.asp>`_
- `Control Types <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/controls.asp>`_
- `ControlCondition Table <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/controlcondition_table.asp>`_
- `ControlEvent Table <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/controlevent_table.asp>`_
- `EventMapping Table <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/eventmapping_table.asp>`_
- `RadioButton Table <http://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/radiobutton_table.asp>`_
+ `Dialog Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/dialog_table.asp>`_
+ `Control Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/control_table.asp>`_
+ `Control Types <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/controls.asp>`_
+ `ControlCondition Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/controlcondition_table.asp>`_
+ `ControlEvent Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/controlevent_table.asp>`_
+ `EventMapping Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/eventmapping_table.asp>`_
+ `RadioButton Table <https://msdn.microsoft.com/library?url=/library/en-us/msi/setup/radiobutton_table.asp>`_
.. _msi-tables:
:func:`~os.open` function. They can be combined using the bitwise OR operator
``|``. Some of them are not available on all platforms. For descriptions of
their availability and use, consult the :manpage:`open(2)` manual page on Unix
-or `the MSDN <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx>`_ on Windows.
+or `the MSDN <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/z0kc8e3z.aspx>`_ on Windows.
.. data:: O_RDONLY
and
`readdir() <http://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/functions/readdir_r.html>`_
functions. On Windows, it uses the Win32
- `FindFirstFileW <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364418(v=vs.85).aspx>`_
+ `FindFirstFileW <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364418(v=vs.85).aspx>`_
and
- `FindNextFileW <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364428(v=vs.85).aspx>`_
+ `FindNextFileW <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/aa364428(v=vs.85).aspx>`_
functions.
.. versionadded:: 3.5
.. seealso::
- `PyGObject <https://live.gnome.org/PyGObject>`_
+ `PyGObject <https://wiki.gnome.org/Projects/PyGObject>`_
provides introspection bindings for C libraries using
`GObject <https://developer.gnome.org/gobject/stable/>`_. One of
these libraries is the `GTK+ 3 <http://www.gtk.org/>`_ widget set.
GTK+ comes with many more widgets than Tkinter provides. An online
- `Python GTK+ 3 Tutorial <http://python-gtk-3-tutorial.readthedocs.org/en/latest/>`_
+ `Python GTK+ 3 Tutorial <https://python-gtk-3-tutorial.readthedocs.org/en/latest/>`_
is available.
`PyGTK <http://www.pygtk.org/>`_ provides bindings for an older version
of the library, GTK+ 2. It provides an object oriented interface that
is slightly higher level than the C one. There are also bindings to
- `GNOME <http://www.gnome.org>`_. An online `tutorial
+ `GNOME <https://www.gnome.org/>`_. An online `tutorial
<http://www.pygtk.org/pygtk2tutorial/index.html>`_ is available.
- `PyQt <http://www.riverbankcomputing.co.uk/software/pyqt/intro>`_
+ `PyQt <https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/intro>`_
PyQt is a :program:`sip`\ -wrapped binding to the Qt toolkit. Qt is an
extensive C++ GUI application development framework that is
available for Unix, Windows and Mac OS X. :program:`sip` is a tool
for generating bindings for C++ libraries as Python classes, and
is specifically designed for Python. The *PyQt3* bindings have a
book, `GUI Programming with Python: QT Edition
- <http://www.commandprompt.com/community/pyqt/>`_ by Boudewijn
+ <https://www.commandprompt.com/community/pyqt/>`_ by Boudewijn
Rempt. The *PyQt4* bindings also have a book, `Rapid GUI Programming
with Python and Qt <http://www.qtrac.eu/pyqtbook.html>`_, by Mark
Summerfield.
- `PySide <http://qt-project.org/wiki/PySide>`_
+ `PySide <https://wiki.qt.io/PySide>`_
is a newer binding to the Qt toolkit, provided by Nokia.
Compared to PyQt, its licensing scheme is friendlier to non-open source
applications.
low-level device context drawing, drag and drop, system clipboard access,
an XML-based resource format and more, including an ever growing library
of user-contributed modules. wxPython has a book, `wxPython in Action
- <http://www.manning.com/rappin/>`_, by Noel Rappin and
+ <https://www.manning.com/books/wxpython-in-action>`_, by Noel Rappin and
Robin Dunn.
PyGTK, PyQt, and wxPython, all have a modern look and feel and more
`Complementary-Multiply-with-Carry recipe
- <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/576707/>`_ for a compatible alternative
+ <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576707/>`_ for a compatible alternative
random number generator with a long period and comparatively simple update
operations.
Writing a Tokenizer
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-A `tokenizer or scanner <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_analysis>`_
+A `tokenizer or scanner <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_analysis>`_
analyzes a string to categorize groups of characters. This is a useful first
step in writing a compiler or interpreter.
.. seealso::
- `Persistent dictionary recipe <http://code.activestate.com/recipes/576642/>`_
+ `Persistent dictionary recipe <https://code.activestate.com/recipes/576642/>`_
with widely supported storage formats and having the speed of native
dictionaries.
A subclass of :class:`Shelf` which exposes :meth:`first`, :meth:`!next`,
:meth:`previous`, :meth:`last` and :meth:`set_location` which are available
in the third-party :mod:`bsddb` module from `pybsddb
- <http://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm>`_ but not in other database
+ <https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm>`_ but not in other database
modules. The *dict* object passed to the constructor must support those
methods. This is generally accomplished by calling one of
:func:`bsddb.hashopen`, :func:`bsddb.btopen` or :func:`bsddb.rnopen`. The
The :meth:`ioctl` method is a limited interface to the WSAIoctl system
interface. Please refer to the `Win32 documentation
- <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms741621%28VS.85%29.aspx>`_ for more
+ <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms741621%28VS.85%29.aspx>`_ for more
information.
On other platforms, the generic :func:`fcntl.fcntl` and :func:`fcntl.ioctl`
The *ciphers* parameter sets the available ciphers for this SSL object.
It should be a string in the `OpenSSL cipher list format
- <http://www.openssl.org/docs/apps/ciphers.html#CIPHER_LIST_FORMAT>`_.
+ <http://www.openssl.org/docs/apps/ciphers.html#CIPHER-LIST-FORMAT>`_.
The parameter ``do_handshake_on_connect`` specifies whether to do the SSL
handshake automatically after doing a :meth:`socket.connect`, or whether the
Read the Wikipedia article, `Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number
generator (CSPRNG)
- <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator>`_,
+ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator>`_,
to get the requirements of a cryptographically generator.
.. versionadded:: 3.3
Whether the OpenSSL library has built-in support for *Next Protocol
Negotiation* as described in the `NPN draft specification
- <http://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-agl-tls-nextprotoneg>`_. When true,
+ <https://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-agl-tls-nextprotoneg>`_. When true,
you can use the :meth:`SSLContext.set_npn_protocols` method to advertise
which protocols you want to support.
Set the available ciphers for sockets created with this context.
It should be a string in the `OpenSSL cipher list format
- <http://www.openssl.org/docs/apps/ciphers.html#CIPHER_LIST_FORMAT>`_.
+ <http://www.openssl.org/docs/apps/ciphers.html#CIPHER-LIST-FORMAT>`_.
If no cipher can be selected (because compile-time options or other
configuration forbids use of all the specified ciphers), an
:class:`SSLError` will be raised.
handshake. It should be a list of strings, like ``['http/1.1', 'spdy/2']``,
ordered by preference. The selection of a protocol will happen during the
handshake, and will play out according to the `NPN draft specification
- <http://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-agl-tls-nextprotoneg>`_. After a
+ <https://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-agl-tls-nextprotoneg>`_. After a
successful handshake, the :meth:`SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol` method will
return the agreed-upon protocol.
:meth:`SSLContext.set_ciphers` method. Starting from Python 3.2.3, the
ssl module disables certain weak ciphers by default, but you may want
to further restrict the cipher choice. Be sure to read OpenSSL's documentation
-about the `cipher list format <http://www.openssl.org/docs/apps/ciphers.html#CIPHER_LIST_FORMAT>`_.
+about the `cipher list format <http://www.openssl.org/docs/apps/ciphers.html#CIPHER-LIST-FORMAT>`_.
If you want to check which ciphers are enabled by a given cipher list, use the
``openssl ciphers`` command on your system.
Class :class:`socket.socket`
Documentation of underlying :mod:`socket` class
- `SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: An Introduction <http://httpd.apache.org/docs/trunk/en/ssl/ssl_intro.html>`_
+ `SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: An Introduction <https://httpd.apache.org/docs/trunk/en/ssl/ssl_intro.html>`_
Intro from the Apache webserver documentation
- `RFC 1422: Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail: Part II: Certificate-Based Key Management <http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1422>`_
+ `RFC 1422: Privacy Enhancement for Internet Electronic Mail: Part II: Certificate-Based Key Management <https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1422>`_
Steve Kent
- `RFC 1750: Randomness Recommendations for Security <http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1750>`_
+ `RFC 1750: Randomness Recommendations for Security <https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1750>`_
D. Eastlake et. al.
- `RFC 3280: Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and CRL Profile <http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3280>`_
+ `RFC 3280: Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure Certificate and CRL Profile <https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3280>`_
Housley et. al.
- `RFC 4366: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions <http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc4366>`_
+ `RFC 4366: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions <https://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc4366>`_
Blake-Wilson et. al.
- `RFC 5246: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2 <http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5246>`_
+ `RFC 5246: The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2 <https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5246>`_
T. Dierks et. al.
- `RFC 6066: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions <http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6066>`_
+ `RFC 6066: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Extensions <https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6066>`_
D. Eastlake
`IANA TLS: Transport Layer Security (TLS) Parameters <http://www.iana.org/assignments/tls-parameters/tls-parameters.xml>`_
On Windows, the following file attribute constants are available for use when
testing bits in the ``st_file_attributes`` member returned by :func:`os.stat`.
See the `Windows API documentation
-<http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/gg258117.aspx>`_
+<https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/gg258117.aspx>`_
for more detail on the meaning of these constants.
.. data:: FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE
execute. On Windows, in order to run a `side-by-side assembly`_ the
specified *env* **must** include a valid :envvar:`SystemRoot`.
- .. _side-by-side assembly: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-by-Side_Assembly
+ .. _side-by-side assembly: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-by-Side_Assembly
If *universal_newlines* is ``True``, the file objects *stdin*, *stdout*
and *stderr* are opened as text streams in universal newlines mode, as
If the shell is invoked explicitly, via ``shell=True``, it is the application's
responsibility to ensure that all whitespace and metacharacters are
quoted appropriately to avoid
-`shell injection <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection>`_
+`shell injection <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_injection#Shell_injection>`_
vulnerabilities.
When using ``shell=True``, the :func:`shlex.quote` function can be
.. class:: STARTUPINFO()
Partial support of the Windows
- `STARTUPINFO <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms686331(v=vs.85).aspx>`__
+ `STARTUPINFO <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms686331(v=vs.85).aspx>`__
structure is used for :class:`Popen` creation.
.. attribute:: dwFlags
If :attr:`dwFlags` specifies :data:`STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW`, this attribute
can be any of the values that can be specified in the ``nCmdShow``
parameter for the
- `ShowWindow <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms633548(v=vs.85).aspx>`__
+ `ShowWindow <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms633548(v=vs.85).aspx>`__
function, except for ``SW_SHOWDEFAULT``. Otherwise, this attribute is
ignored.
are expected to crash a subprocess.
On Windows, it disables Windows Error Reporting dialogs using
- `SetErrorMode <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms680621.aspx>`_.
+ `SetErrorMode <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms680621.aspx>`_.
On UNIX, :func:`resource.setrlimit` is used to set
:attr:`resource.RLIMIT_CORE`'s soft limit to 0 to prevent coredump file
`Tcl/Tk manual <http://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.5/>`_
Official manual for the latest tcl/tk version.
- `Programming Python <http://www.rmi.net/~lutz/about-pp4e.html>`_
+ `Programming Python <http://learning-python.com/books/about-pp4e.html>`_
Book by Mark Lutz, has excellent coverage of Tkinter.
`Modern Tkinter for Busy Python Developers <http://www.amazon.com/Modern-Tkinter-Python-Developers-ebook/dp/B0071QDNLO/>`_
Book by Mark Rozerman about building attractive and modern graphical user interfaces with Python and Tkinter.
- `Python and Tkinter Programming <http://www.manning.com/grayson/>`_
+ `Python and Tkinter Programming <https://www.manning.com/books/python-and-tkinter-programming>`_
The book by John Grayson (ISBN 1-884777-81-3).
An alternative way of dealing with mocking dates, or other builtin classes,
is discussed in `this blog entry
-<http://www.williamjohnbert.com/2011/07/how-to-unit-testing-in-django-with-mocking-and-patching/>`_.
+<http://williambert.online/2011/07/how-to-unit-testing-in-django-with-mocking-and-patching/>`_.
Mocking a Generator Method
:exc:`AssertionError` directly and provide a more useful failure message.
As of version 1.5, the Python testing library `PyHamcrest
-<https://pypi.python.org/pypi/PyHamcrest>`_ provides similar functionality,
+<https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.org/>`_ provides similar functionality,
that may be useful here, in the form of its equality matcher
(`hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality
-<http://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.org/en/stable/integration/#module-hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality>`_).
+<https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.org/en/release-1.8/integration/#module-hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality>`_).
.. seealso::
- The `Requests package <http://requests.readthedocs.org/>`_
+ The `Requests package <https://requests.readthedocs.org/>`_
is recommended for a higher-level http client interface.
The :func:`DeleteKeyEx` function is implemented with the RegDeleteKeyEx
Windows API function, which is specific to 64-bit versions of Windows.
See the `RegDeleteKeyEx documentation
- <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724847%28VS.85%29.aspx>`__.
+ <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724847%28VS.85%29.aspx>`__.
*key* is an already open key, or one of the predefined
:ref:`HKEY_* constants <hkey-constants>`.
A call to :func:`LoadKey` fails if the calling process does not have the
:const:`SE_RESTORE_PRIVILEGE` privilege. Note that privileges are different
from permissions -- see the `RegLoadKey documentation
- <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724889%28v=VS.85%29.aspx>`__ for
+ <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724889%28v=VS.85%29.aspx>`__ for
more details.
If *key* is a handle returned by :func:`ConnectRegistry`, then the path
possess the :const:`SeBackupPrivilege` security privilege. Note that
privileges are different than permissions -- see the
`Conflicts Between User Rights and Permissions documentation
- <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx>`__
+ <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx>`__
for more details.
This function passes NULL for *security_attributes* to the API.
+++++++++++++
For more information, see `Registry Key Security and Access
-<http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx>`__.
+<https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx>`__.
.. data:: KEY_ALL_ACCESS
***************
For more information, see `Accessing an Alternate Registry View
-<http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa384129(v=VS.85).aspx>`__.
+<https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa384129(v=VS.85).aspx>`__.
.. data:: KEY_WOW64_64KEY
+++++++++++
For more information, see `Registry Value Types
-<http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724884%28v=VS.85%29.aspx>`__.
+<https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724884%28v=VS.85%29.aspx>`__.
.. data:: REG_BINARY
and a validation tool that checks WSGI servers and applications for conformance
to the WSGI specification (:pep:`3333`).
-See http://www.wsgi.org for more information about WSGI, and links to tutorials
-and other resources.
+See https://wsgi.readthedocs.org/ for more information about WSGI, and links to
+tutorials and other resources.
.. XXX If you're just trying to write a web application...
billion laughs **Yes** **Yes** **Yes** **Yes** **Yes**
quadratic blowup **Yes** **Yes** **Yes** **Yes** **Yes**
external entity expansion **Yes** No (1) No (2) **Yes** No (3)
-DTD retrieval **Yes** No No **Yes** No
+`DTD`_ retrieval **Yes** No No **Yes** No
decompression bomb No No No No **Yes**
========================= ======== ========= ========= ======== =========
also point to external resources or local files. The XML
parser accesses the resource and embeds the content into the XML document.
-DTD retrieval
+`DTD`_ retrieval
Some XML libraries like Python's :mod:`xml.dom.pulldom` retrieve document type
definitions from remote or local locations. The feature has similar
implications as the external entity expansion issue.
.. _defusedxml: https://pypi.python.org/pypi/defusedxml/
.. _defusedexpat: https://pypi.python.org/pypi/defusedexpat/
-.. _Billion Laughs: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs
-.. _ZIP bomb: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb
-.. _DTD: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_Type_Definition
+.. _Billion Laughs: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs
+.. _ZIP bomb: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb
+.. _DTD: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_type_definition
`XML-RPC Introspection <http://xmlrpc-c.sourceforge.net/introspection.html>`_
Describes the XML-RPC protocol extension for introspection.
- `XML-RPC Specification <http://www.xmlrpc.com/spec>`_
+ `XML-RPC Specification <http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/spec.html>`_
The official specification.
`Unofficial XML-RPC Errata <http://effbot.org/zone/xmlrpc-errata.htm>`_
The ZIP file format is a common archive and compression standard. This module
provides tools to create, read, write, append, and list a ZIP file. Any
advanced use of this module will require an understanding of the format, as
-defined in `PKZIP Application Note
-<http://www.pkware.com/documents/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT>`_.
+defined in `PKZIP Application Note`_.
This module does not currently handle multi-disk ZIP files.
It can handle ZIP files that use the ZIP64 extensions
.. seealso::
- `PKZIP Application Note <http://www.pkware.com/documents/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT>`_
+ `PKZIP Application Note`_
Documentation on the ZIP file format by Phil Katz, the creator of the format and
algorithms used.
.. attribute:: ZipInfo.extra
- Expansion field data. The `PKZIP Application Note
- <http://www.pkware.com/documents/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT>`_ contains
+ Expansion field data. The `PKZIP Application Note`_ contains
some comments on the internal structure of the data contained in this string.
.. attribute:: ZipInfo.file_size
Size of the uncompressed file.
+
+.. _PKZIP Application Note: https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT
.. seealso::
- `PKZIP Application Note <http://www.pkware.com/documents/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT>`_
+ `PKZIP Application Note <https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT>`_
Documentation on the ZIP file format by Phil Katz, the creator of the format and
algorithms used.
*PyQt* is another popular cross-platform GUI toolkit that runs natively on Mac
OS X. More information can be found at
-http://www.riverbankcomputing.co.uk/software/pyqt/intro.
+https://riverbankcomputing.com/software/pyqt/intro.
Distributing Python Applications on the Mac
.. seealso::
- http://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/maint-guide/first.en.html
+ https://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/maint-guide/first.en.html
for Debian users
- http://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Packaging
+ https://en.opensuse.org/Portal:Packaging
for OpenSuse users
- http://docs.fedoraproject.org/en-US/Fedora_Draft_Documentation/0.1/html/RPM_Guide/ch-creating-rpms.html
+ https://docs.fedoraproject.org/en-US/Fedora_Draft_Documentation/0.1/html/RPM_Guide/ch-creating-rpms.html
for Fedora users
http://www.slackbook.org/html/package-management-making-packages.html
for Slackware users
===============
If you want to compile CPython yourself, first thing you should do is get the
-`source <https://www.python.org/download/source/>`_. You can download either the
+`source <https://www.python.org/downloads/source/>`_. You can download either the
latest release's source or just grab a fresh `clone
<https://docs.python.org/devguide/setup.html#getting-the-source-code>`_. (If you want
to contribute patches, you will need a clone.)
release/python>`_, `Maintainer releases
<http://www.tishler.net/jason/software/python/>`_)
-See `Python for Windows <https://www.python.org/download/windows/>`_
+See `Python for Windows <https://www.python.org/downloads/windows/>`_
for detailed information about platforms with pre-compiled installers.
.. seealso::
- `Python on XP <http://www.richarddooling.com/index.php/2006/03/14/python-on-xp-7-minutes-to-hello-world/>`_
+ `Python on XP <http://dooling.com/index.php/2006/03/14/python-on-xp-7-minutes-to-hello-world/>`_
"7 Minutes to "Hello World!""
by Richard Dooling, 2006
additional functionality. The following is a list of popular versions and their
key features:
-`ActivePython <http://www.activestate.com/activepython/>`_
+`ActivePython <https://www.activestate.com/activepython/>`_
Installer with multi-platform compatibility, documentation, PyWin32
-`Anaconda <http://www.continuum.io/downloads/>`_
+`Anaconda <https://www.continuum.io/downloads/>`_
Popular scientific modules (such as numpy, scipy and pandas) and the
``conda`` package manager.
.. seealso::
- http://support.microsoft.com/kb/100843
+ https://support.microsoft.com/kb/100843
Environment variables in Windows NT
- http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc754250.aspx
+ https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc754250.aspx
The SET command, for temporarily modifying environment variables
- http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc755104.aspx
+ https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc755104.aspx
The SETX command, for permanently modifying environment variables
- http://support.microsoft.com/kb/310519
+ https://support.microsoft.com/kb/310519
How To Manage Environment Variables in Windows XP
http://www.chem.gla.ac.uk/~louis/software/faq/q1.html
PyWin32
-------
-The `PyWin32 <http://python.net/crew/mhammond/win32/>`_ module by Mark Hammond
+The `PyWin32 <https://pypi.python.org/pypi/pywin32>`_ module by Mark Hammond
is a collection of modules for advanced Windows-specific support. This includes
utilities for:
-* `Component Object Model <http://www.microsoft.com/com/>`_ (COM)
+* `Component Object Model <https://www.microsoft.com/com/>`_ (COM)
* Win32 API calls
* Registry
* Event log
-* `Microsoft Foundation Classes <http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/fe1cf721%28VS.80%29.aspx>`_ (MFC)
+* `Microsoft Foundation Classes <https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/fe1cf721%28VS.80%29.aspx>`_ (MFC)
user interfaces
-`PythonWin <http://web.archive.org/web/20060524042422/
+`PythonWin <https://web.archive.org/web/20060524042422/
https://www.python.org/windows/pythonwin/>`_ is a sample MFC application
shipped with PyWin32. It is an embeddable IDE with a built-in debugger.
===========================
If you want to compile CPython yourself, first thing you should do is get the
-`source <https://www.python.org/download/source/>`_. You can download either the
+`source <https://www.python.org/downloads/source/>`_. You can download either the
latest release's source or just grab a fresh `checkout
<https://docs.python.org/devguide/setup.html#getting-the-source-code>`_.
.. note::
The embedded distribution does not include the `Microsoft C Runtime
- <http://www.microsoft.com/en-us/download/details.aspx?id=48145>`_ and it is
+ <https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/download/details.aspx?id=48145>`_ and it is
the responsibility of the application installer to provide this. The
runtime may have already been installed on a user's system previously or
automatically via Windows Update, and can be detected by finding
Read the rest of PEP 1 for the details of the PEP editorial process, style, and
format. PEPs are kept in the Python CVS tree on SourceForge, though they're not
part of the Python 2.0 distribution, and are also available in HTML form from
-https://www.python.org/peps/. As of September 2000, there are 25 PEPS, ranging
+https://www.python.org/dev/peps/. As of September 2000, there are 25 PEPS, ranging
from PEP 201, "Lockstep Iteration", to PEP 225, "Elementwise/Objectwise
Operators".
[ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]
The idea of list comprehensions originally comes from the functional programming
-language Haskell (http://www.haskell.org). Greg Ewing argued most effectively
+language Haskell (https://www.haskell.org). Greg Ewing argued most effectively
for adding them to Python and wrote the initial list comprehension patch, which
was then discussed for a seemingly endless time on the python-dev mailing list
and kept up-to-date by Skip Montanaro.
using Python 2.1, since a new release of the Distutils will be made for users of
earlier Python versions. Version 1.0.2 of the Distutils includes the changes
described in PEP 241, as well as various bugfixes and enhancements. It will be
-available from the Distutils SIG at https://www.python.org/sigs/distutils-sig/.
+available from the Distutils SIG at https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/distutils-sig/.
.. seealso::
hierarchy. Classic classes are unaffected by this change. Python 2.2
originally used a topological sort of a class's ancestors, but 2.3 now uses the
C3 algorithm as described in the paper `"A Monotonic Superclass Linearization
- for Dylan" <http://www.webcom.com/haahr/dylan/linearization-oopsla96.html>`_. To
+ for Dylan" <http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.19.3910>`_. To
understand the motivation for this change, read Michele Simionato's article
- `"Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order" <https://www.python.org/2.3/mro.html>`_, or
+ `"Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order" <http://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~micheles/mro.html>`_, or
read the thread on python-dev starting with the message at
https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html. Samuele
Pedroni first pointed out the problem and also implemented the fix by coding the
partially sorted order such that, for every index *k*, ``heap[k] <=
heap[2*k+1]`` and ``heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]``. This makes it quick to remove the
smallest item, and inserting a new item while maintaining the heap property is
- O(lg n). (See http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/priorityque.html for more
+ O(lg n). (See https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads//HTML/priorityque.html for more
information about the priority queue data structure.)
The :mod:`heapq` module provides :func:`heappush` and :func:`heappop` functions
source distribution, were updated for 2.3. (Contributed by Sean Reifschneider.)
Other new platforms now supported by Python include AtheOS
-(http://www.atheos.cx/), GNU/Hurd, and OpenVMS.
+(http://atheos.cx/), GNU/Hurd, and OpenVMS.
.. ======================================================================
wrote patches implementing function decorators, but the one that was actually
checked in was patch #979728, written by Mark Russell.
- https://www.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary
+ https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary
This Wiki page contains several examples of decorators.
.. ======================================================================
The article uses Fortran code to illustrate many of the problems that floating-
point inaccuracy can cause.
- http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/
+ http://speleotrove.com/decimal/
A description of a decimal-based representation. This representation is being
proposed as a standard, and underlies the new Python decimal type. Much of this
material was written by Mike Cowlishaw, designer of the Rexx language.
:c:type:`double` to an ASCII string.
The code for these functions came from the GLib library
-(http://library.gnome.org/devel/glib/stable/), whose developers kindly
+(https://developer.gnome.org/glib/stable/), whose developers kindly
relicensed the relevant functions and donated them to the Python Software
Foundation. The :mod:`locale` module can now change the numeric locale,
letting extensions such as GTK+ produce the correct results.
:pep:`328` - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative
PEP written by Aahz; implemented by Thomas Wouters.
- http://codespeak.net/py/current/doc/index.html
+ https://pylib.readthedocs.org/
The py library by Holger Krekel, which contains the :mod:`py.std` package.
.. ======================================================================
Earlier versions of these features were proposed in :pep:`288` by Raymond
Hettinger and :pep:`325` by Samuele Pedroni.
- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine
+ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine
The Wikipedia entry for coroutines.
http://www.sidhe.org/~dan/blog/archives/000178.html
provided the results of their examination of the Python source code. The
analysis found about 60 bugs that were quickly fixed. Many of the bugs were
refcounting problems, often occurring in error-handling code. See
- http://scan.coverity.com for the statistics.
+ https://scan.coverity.com for the statistics.
* The largest change to the C API came from :pep:`353`, which modifies the
interpreter to use a :c:type:`Py_ssize_t` type definition instead of
therefore posted a call for issue trackers, asking volunteers to set
up different products and import some of the bugs and patches from
SourceForge. Four different trackers were examined: `Jira
-<http://www.atlassian.com/software/jira/>`__,
-`Launchpad <http://www.launchpad.net>`__,
+<https://www.atlassian.com/software/jira/>`__,
+`Launchpad <https://www.launchpad.net>`__,
`Roundup <http://roundup.sourceforge.net/>`__, and
`Trac <http://trac.edgewall.org/>`__.
The committee eventually settled on Jira
During the 2.6 development cycle, Georg Brandl put a lot of effort
into building a new toolchain for processing the documentation. The
resulting package is called Sphinx, and is available from
-http://sphinx.pocoo.org/.
+http://sphinx-doc.org/.
Sphinx concentrates on HTML output, producing attractively styled and
modern HTML; printed output is still supported through conversion to
* The :mod:`bsddb` module also has a new maintainer, Jesús Cea Avión, and the package
is now available as a standalone package. The web page for the package is
`www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm
- <http://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm>`__.
+ <https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm>`__.
The plan is to remove the package from the standard library
in Python 3.0, because its pace of releases is much more frequent than
Python's.
the left to six places. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro; :issue:`1158`.)
* The :mod:`decimal` module was updated to version 1.66 of
- `the General Decimal Specification <http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/decarith.html>`__. New features
+ `the General Decimal Specification <http://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html>`__. New features
include some methods for some basic mathematical functions such as
:meth:`exp` and :meth:`log10`::
* Updated module: the :mod:`bsddb` module has been updated from 4.7.2devel9
to version 4.8.4 of
- `the pybsddb package <http://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm>`__.
+ `the pybsddb package <https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm>`__.
The new version features better Python 3.x compatibility, various bug fixes,
and adds several new BerkeleyDB flags and methods.
(Updated by Jesús Cea Avión; :issue:`8156`. The pybsddb
(Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; :issue:`6192` and :issue:`6267`.)
* Updated module: the :mod:`sqlite3` module has been updated to
- version 2.6.0 of the `pysqlite package <http://code.google.com/p/pysqlite/>`__. Version 2.6.0 includes a number of bugfixes, and adds
+ version 2.6.0 of the `pysqlite package <https://github.com/ghaering/pysqlite>`__. Version 2.6.0 includes a number of bugfixes, and adds
the ability to load SQLite extensions from shared libraries.
Call the ``enable_load_extension(True)`` method to enable extensions,
and then call :meth:`~sqlite3.Connection.load_extension` to load a particular shared library.
core standard library has proved over time to be a particular burden
for the core developers due to testing instability and Berkeley DB's
release schedule. However, the package is alive and well,
- externally maintained at http://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm.
+ externally maintained at https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm.
* Some modules were renamed because their old name disobeyed
:pep:`0008`, or for various other reasons. Here's the list:
* The :class:`collections.Counter` class now has two forms of in-place
subtraction, the existing *-=* operator for `saturating subtraction
- <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_arithmetic>`_ and the new
+ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_arithmetic>`_ and the new
:meth:`~collections.Counter.subtract` method for regular subtraction. The
- former is suitable for `multisets <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset>`_
+ former is suitable for `multisets <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset>`_
which only have positive counts, and the latter is more suitable for use cases
that allow negative counts:
complete.
Barriers can work with an arbitrary number of threads. This is a generalization
-of a `Rendezvous <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_rendezvous>`_ which
+of a `Rendezvous <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_rendezvous>`_ which
is defined for only two threads.
Implemented as a two-phase cyclic barrier, :class:`~threading.Barrier` objects
0.013765762467652909
The :func:`~math.erf` function computes a probability integral or `Gaussian
-error function <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function>`_. The
+error function <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function>`_. The
complementary error function, :func:`~math.erfc`, is ``1 - erf(x)``:
>>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0)) # portion of normal distribution within 1 standard deviation
1.0
The :func:`~math.gamma` function is a continuous extension of the factorial
-function. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function for details. Because
+function. See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function for details. Because
the function is related to factorials, it grows large even for small values of
*x*, so there is also a :func:`~math.lgamma` function for computing the natural
logarithm of the gamma function:
A number of usability improvements were made for the :mod:`urllib.parse` module.
The :func:`~urllib.parse.urlparse` function now supports `IPv6
-<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6>`_ addresses as described in :rfc:`2732`:
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6>`_ addresses as described in :rfc:`2732`:
>>> import urllib.parse
>>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/')
(Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti, Antoine Pitrou
and the Unladen Swallow team in :issue:`9410` and :issue:`3873`.)
-* The `Timsort algorithm <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort>`_ used in
+* The `Timsort algorithm <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort>`_ used in
:meth:`list.sort` and :func:`sorted` now runs faster and uses less memory
when called with a :term:`key function`. Previously, every element of
a list was wrapped with a temporary object that remembered the key value
Python has been updated to `Unicode 6.0.0
<http://unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/>`_. The update to the standard adds
-over 2,000 new characters including `emoji <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji>`_
+over 2,000 new characters including `emoji <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji>`_
symbols which are important for mobile phones.
In addition, the updated standard has altered the character properties for two
**Source code** :source:`Lib/functools.py`.
(Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; see
- `rationale <http://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/open-your-source-more/>`_.)
+ `rationale <https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/open-your-source-more/>`_.)
* The docs now contain more examples and recipes. In particular, :mod:`re`
module has an extensive section, :ref:`re-examples`. Likewise, the
===============
In addition to the existing Subversion code repository at http://svn.python.org
-there is now a `Mercurial <http://mercurial.selenic.com/>`_ repository at
+there is now a `Mercurial <https://www.mercurial-scm.org/>`_ repository at
https://hg.python.org/\ .
After the 3.2 release, there are plans to switch to Mercurial as the primary
To learn to use the new version control system, see the `tutorial by Joel
Spolsky <http://hginit.com>`_ or the `Guide to Mercurial Workflows
-<http://mercurial.selenic.com/guide>`_.
+<https://www.mercurial-scm.org/guide>`_.
Build and C API Changes
Heiko Wundram)
* The :class:`~socket.socket` class now supports the PF_CAN protocol family
- (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan), on Linux
- (http://lwn.net/Articles/253425).
+ (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan), on Linux
+ (https://lwn.net/Articles/253425).
(Contributed by Matthias Fuchs, updated by Tiago Gonçalves in :issue:`10141`.)
* The :class:`~socket.socket` class now supports the PF_RDS protocol family
- (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets and
+ (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets and
https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds/).
* The :class:`~socket.socket` class now supports the ``PF_SYSTEM`` protocol
all of the parent's inheritable handles, only the necessary ones.
* A new :func:`hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac` function provides
the `PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2
- <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2>`_.
+ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2>`_.
* :ref:`TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 support <whatsnew-tls-11-12>` for :mod:`ssl`.
* :ref:`Retrieving certificates from the Windows system cert store support
<whatsnew34-win-cert-store>` for :mod:`ssl`.
A new :func:`hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac` function provides
the `PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2
-<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2>`_. (Contributed by Christian
+<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2>`_. (Contributed by Christian
Heimes in :issue:`18582`.)
The :attr:`~hashlib.hash.name` attribute of :mod:`hashlib` hash objects is now
:issue:`18596`.)
* The Windows build now uses `Address Space Layout Randomization
- <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASLR>`_ and `Data Execution Prevention
- <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Execution_Prevention>`_. (Contributed by
+ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization>`_ and `Data Execution Prevention
+ <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Execution_Prevention>`_. (Contributed by
Christian Heimes in :issue:`16632`.)
* New function :c:func:`PyObject_LengthHint` is the C API equivalent
The :c:member:`PyTypeObject.tp_finalize` slot is now part of the stable ABI.
Windows builds now require Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, which
-is available as part of `Visual Studio 2015 <http://www.visualstudio.com>`_.
+is available as part of `Visual Studio 2015 <https://www.visualstudio.com/>`_.
Extension modules now include a platform information tag in their filename on
some platforms (the tag is optional, and CPython will import extensions without
- Issue #16245: Fix the value of a few entities in html.entities.html5.
-- Issue #16301: Fix the localhost verification in urllib/request.py for file://
+- Issue #16301: Fix the localhost verification in urllib/request.py for ``file://``
urls.
- Issue #16250: Fix the invocations of URLError which had misplaced filename
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