-<!-- $Header: /cvsroot/pgsql/doc/src/sgml/array.sgml,v 1.32 2003/11/01 01:56:28 petere Exp $ -->
+<!-- doc/src/sgml/array.sgml -->
<sect1 id="arrays">
<title>Arrays</title>
<para>
<productname>PostgreSQL</productname> allows columns of a table to be
defined as variable-length multidimensional arrays. Arrays of any
- built-in type or user-defined type can be created.
+ built-in or user-defined base type, enum type, or composite type
+ can be created.
+ Arrays of domains are not yet supported.
</para>
- <sect2>
+ <sect2 id="arrays-declaration">
<title>Declaration of Array Types</title>
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>array</primary>
+ <secondary>declaration</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
<para>
To illustrate the use of array types, we create this table:
<programlisting>
);
</programlisting>
- However, the current implementation does not enforce the array size
- limits --- the behavior is the same as for arrays of unspecified
+ However, the current implementation ignores any supplied array size
+ limits, i.e., the behavior is the same as for arrays of unspecified
length.
</para>
<para>
- Actually, the current implementation does not enforce the declared
+ The current implementation does not enforce the declared
number of dimensions either. Arrays of a particular element type are
all considered to be of the same type, regardless of size or number
- of dimensions. So, declaring number of dimensions or sizes in
- <command>CREATE TABLE</command> is simply documentation, it does not
- affect runtime behavior.
+ of dimensions. So, declaring the array size or number of dimensions in
+ <command>CREATE TABLE</command> is simply documentation; it does not
+ affect run-time behavior.
</para>
<para>
- An alternative, SQL99-standard syntax may be used for one-dimensional arrays.
- <structfield>pay_by_quarter</structfield> could have been defined as:
+ An alternative syntax, which conforms to the SQL standard by using
+ the keyword <literal>ARRAY</>, can be used for one-dimensional arrays.
+ <structfield>pay_by_quarter</structfield> could have been defined
+ as:
<programlisting>
pay_by_quarter integer ARRAY[4],
</programlisting>
- This syntax requires an integer constant to denote the array size.
+ Or, if no array size is to be specified:
+<programlisting>
+ pay_by_quarter integer ARRAY,
+</programlisting>
As before, however, <productname>PostgreSQL</> does not enforce the
- size restriction.
+ size restriction in any case.
</para>
</sect2>
- <sect2>
+ <sect2 id="arrays-input">
<title>Array Value Input</title>
- <para>
- Now we can show some <command>INSERT</command> statements. To write an array
- value as a literal constant, we enclose the element values within curly
- braces and separate them by commas. (If you know C, this is not unlike the
- C syntax for initializing structures.) We may put double quotes around any
- element value, and must do so if it contains commas or curly braces.
- (More details appear below.)
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>array</primary>
+ <secondary>constant</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
+ <para>
+ To write an array value as a literal constant, enclose the element
+ values within curly braces and separate them by commas. (If you
+ know C, this is not unlike the C syntax for initializing
+ structures.) You can put double quotes around any element value,
+ and must do so if it contains commas or curly braces. (More
+ details appear below.) Thus, the general format of an array
+ constant is the following:
+<synopsis>
+'{ <replaceable>val1</replaceable> <replaceable>delim</replaceable> <replaceable>val2</replaceable> <replaceable>delim</replaceable> ... }'
+</synopsis>
+ where <replaceable>delim</replaceable> is the delimiter character
+ for the type, as recorded in its <literal>pg_type</literal> entry.
+ Among the standard data types provided in the
+ <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> distribution, all use a comma
+ (<literal>,</>), except for type <type>box</> which uses a semicolon
+ (<literal>;</>). Each <replaceable>val</replaceable> is
+ either a constant of the array element type, or a subarray. An example
+ of an array constant is:
+<programlisting>
+'{{1,2,3},{4,5,6},{7,8,9}}'
+</programlisting>
+ This constant is a two-dimensional, 3-by-3 array consisting of
+ three subarrays of integers.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ To set an element of an array constant to NULL, write <literal>NULL</>
+ for the element value. (Any upper- or lower-case variant of
+ <literal>NULL</> will do.) If you want an actual string value
+ <quote>NULL</>, you must put double quotes around it.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ (These kinds of array constants are actually only a special case of
+ the generic type constants discussed in <xref
+ linkend="sql-syntax-constants-generic">. The constant is initially
+ treated as a string and passed to the array input conversion
+ routine. An explicit type specification might be necessary.)
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ Now we can show some <command>INSERT</command> statements:
<programlisting>
INSERT INTO sal_emp
VALUES ('Bill',
'{10000, 10000, 10000, 10000}',
- '{{"meeting", "lunch"}, {}}');
+ '{{"meeting", "lunch"}, {"training", "presentation"}}');
INSERT INTO sal_emp
VALUES ('Carol',
'{20000, 25000, 25000, 25000}',
- '{{"talk", "consult"}, {"meeting"}}');
+ '{{"breakfast", "consulting"}, {"meeting", "lunch"}}');
</programlisting>
- </para>
+ </para>
<para>
- A limitation of the present array implementation is that individual
- elements of an array cannot be SQL null values. The entire array can be set
- to null, but you can't have an array with some elements null and some
- not.
- </para>
- <para>
- This can lead to surprising results. For example, the result of the
- previous two inserts looks like this:
+ The result of the previous two inserts looks like this:
+
<programlisting>
SELECT * FROM sal_emp;
- name | pay_by_quarter | schedule
--------+---------------------------+--------------------
- Bill | {10000,10000,10000,10000} | {{meeting},{""}}
- Carol | {20000,25000,25000,25000} | {{talk},{meeting}}
+ name | pay_by_quarter | schedule
+-------+---------------------------+-------------------------------------------
+ Bill | {10000,10000,10000,10000} | {{meeting,lunch},{training,presentation}}
+ Carol | {20000,25000,25000,25000} | {{breakfast,consulting},{meeting,lunch}}
(2 rows)
</programlisting>
- Because the <literal>[2][2]</literal> element of
- <structfield>schedule</structfield> is missing in each of the
- <command>INSERT</command> statements, the <literal>[1][2]</literal>
- element is discarded.
</para>
- <note>
- <para>
- Fixing this is on the to-do list.
- </para>
- </note>
+ <para>
+ Multidimensional arrays must have matching extents for each
+ dimension. A mismatch causes an error, for example:
+
+<programlisting>
+INSERT INTO sal_emp
+ VALUES ('Bill',
+ '{10000, 10000, 10000, 10000}',
+ '{{"meeting", "lunch"}, {"meeting"}}');
+ERROR: multidimensional arrays must have array expressions with matching dimensions
+</programlisting>
+ </para>
<para>
- The <literal>ARRAY</literal> expression syntax may also be used:
+ The <literal>ARRAY</> constructor syntax can also be used:
<programlisting>
INSERT INTO sal_emp
VALUES ('Bill',
ARRAY[10000, 10000, 10000, 10000],
- ARRAY[['meeting', 'lunch'], ['','']]);
+ ARRAY[['meeting', 'lunch'], ['training', 'presentation']]);
INSERT INTO sal_emp
VALUES ('Carol',
ARRAY[20000, 25000, 25000, 25000],
- ARRAY[['talk', 'consult'], ['meeting', '']]);
-SELECT * FROM sal_emp;
- name | pay_by_quarter | schedule
--------+---------------------------+-------------------------------
- Bill | {10000,10000,10000,10000} | {{meeting,lunch},{"",""}}
- Carol | {20000,25000,25000,25000} | {{talk,consult},{meeting,""}}
-(2 rows)
-</programlisting>
- Note that with this syntax, multidimensional arrays must have matching
- extents for each dimension. A mismatch causes an error report, rather than
- silently discarding values as in the previous case.
- For example:
-<programlisting>
-INSERT INTO sal_emp
- VALUES ('Carol',
- ARRAY[20000, 25000, 25000, 25000],
- ARRAY[['talk', 'consult'], ['meeting']]);
-ERROR: multidimensional arrays must have array expressions with matching dimensions
+ ARRAY[['breakfast', 'consulting'], ['meeting', 'lunch']]);
</programlisting>
- Also notice that the array elements are ordinary SQL constants or
+ Notice that the array elements are ordinary SQL constants or
expressions; for instance, string literals are single quoted, instead of
double quoted as they would be in an array literal. The <literal>ARRAY</>
- expression syntax is discussed in more detail in <xref
- linkend="sql-syntax-array-constructors">.
+ constructor syntax is discussed in more detail in
+ <xref linkend="sql-syntax-array-constructors">.
</para>
</sect2>
- <sect2>
+ <sect2 id="arrays-accessing">
<title>Accessing Arrays</title>
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>array</primary>
+ <secondary>accessing</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
<para>
Now, we can run some queries on the table.
- First, we show how to access a single element of an array at a time.
+ First, we show how to access a single element of an array.
This query retrieves the names of the employees whose pay changed in
the second quarter:
-
+
<programlisting>
SELECT name FROM sal_emp WHERE pay_by_quarter[1] <> pay_by_quarter[2];
</programlisting>
The array subscript numbers are written within square brackets.
- By default <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> uses the
+ By default <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> uses a
one-based numbering convention for arrays, that is,
an array of <replaceable>n</> elements starts with <literal>array[1]</literal> and
ends with <literal>array[<replaceable>n</>]</literal>.
<para>
This query retrieves the third quarter pay of all employees:
-
+
<programlisting>
SELECT pay_by_quarter[3] FROM sal_emp;
<literal><replaceable>lower-bound</replaceable>:<replaceable>upper-bound</replaceable></literal>
for one or more array dimensions. For example, this query retrieves the first
item on Bill's schedule for the first two days of the week:
-
+
<programlisting>
SELECT schedule[1:2][1:1] FROM sal_emp WHERE name = 'Bill';
- schedule
---------------------
- {{meeting},{""}}
+ schedule
+------------------------
+ {{meeting},{training}}
(1 row)
</programlisting>
- We could also have written
+ If any dimension is written as a slice, i.e., contains a colon, then all
+ dimensions are treated as slices. Any dimension that has only a single
+ number (no colon) is treated as being from 1
+ to the number specified. For example, <literal>[2]</> is treated as
+ <literal>[1:2]</>, as in this example:
<programlisting>
-SELECT schedule[1:2][1] FROM sal_emp WHERE name = 'Bill';
+SELECT schedule[1:2][2] FROM sal_emp WHERE name = 'Bill';
+
+ schedule
+-------------------------------------------
+ {{meeting,lunch},{training,presentation}}
+(1 row)
</programlisting>
- with the same result. An array subscripting operation is always taken to
- represent an array slice if any of the subscripts are written in the form
- <literal><replaceable>lower</replaceable>:<replaceable>upper</replaceable></literal>.
- A lower bound of 1 is assumed for any subscript where only one value
- is specified, as in this example:
+ To avoid confusion with the non-slice case, it's best to use slice syntax
+ for all dimensions, e.g., <literal>[1:2][1:1]</>, not <literal>[2][1:1]</>.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ It is possible to omit the <replaceable>lower-bound</replaceable> and/or
+ <replaceable>upper-bound</replaceable> of a slice specifier; the missing
+ bound is replaced by the lower or upper limit of the array's subscripts.
+ For example:
+
<programlisting>
-SELECT schedule[1:2][2] FROM sal_emp WHERE name = 'Bill';
- schedule
----------------------------
- {{meeting,lunch},{"",""}}
+SELECT schedule[:2][2:] FROM sal_emp WHERE name = 'Bill';
+
+ schedule
+------------------------
+ {{lunch},{presentation}}
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT schedule[:][1:1] FROM sal_emp WHERE name = 'Bill';
+
+ schedule
+------------------------
+ {{meeting},{training}}
(1 row)
</programlisting>
</para>
+ <para>
+ An array subscript expression will return null if either the array itself or
+ any of the subscript expressions are null. Also, null is returned if a
+ subscript is outside the array bounds (this case does not raise an error).
+ For example, if <literal>schedule</>
+ currently has the dimensions <literal>[1:3][1:2]</> then referencing
+ <literal>schedule[3][3]</> yields NULL. Similarly, an array reference
+ with the wrong number of subscripts yields a null rather than an error.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ An array slice expression likewise yields null if the array itself or
+ any of the subscript expressions are null. However, in other
+ cases such as selecting an array slice that
+ is completely outside the current array bounds, a slice expression
+ yields an empty (zero-dimensional) array instead of null. (This
+ does not match non-slice behavior and is done for historical reasons.)
+ If the requested slice partially overlaps the array bounds, then it
+ is silently reduced to just the overlapping region instead of
+ returning null.
+ </para>
+
<para>
The current dimensions of any array value can be retrieved with the
<function>array_dims</function> function:
array_dims
------------
- [1:2][1:1]
+ [1:2][1:2]
(1 row)
</programlisting>
<function>array_dims</function> produces a <type>text</type> result,
- which is convenient for people to read but perhaps not so convenient
+ which is convenient for people to read but perhaps inconvenient
for programs. Dimensions can also be retrieved with
<function>array_upper</function> and <function>array_lower</function>,
which return the upper and lower bound of a
- specified array dimension, respectively.
+ specified array dimension, respectively:
<programlisting>
SELECT array_upper(schedule, 1) FROM sal_emp WHERE name = 'Carol';
-------------
2
(1 row)
+</programlisting>
+
+ <function>array_length</function> will return the length of a specified
+ array dimension:
+
+<programlisting>
+SELECT array_length(schedule, 1) FROM sal_emp WHERE name = 'Carol';
+
+ array_length
+--------------
+ 2
+(1 row)
+</programlisting>
+
+ <function>cardinality</function> returns the total number of elements in an
+ array across all dimensions. It is effectively the number of rows a call to
+ <function>unnest</function> would yield:
+
+<programlisting>
+SELECT cardinality(schedule) FROM sal_emp WHERE name = 'Carol';
+
+ cardinality
+-------------
+ 4
+(1 row)
</programlisting>
</para>
</sect2>
- <sect2>
+ <sect2 id="arrays-modifying">
<title>Modifying Arrays</title>
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>array</primary>
+ <secondary>modifying</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
<para>
An array value can be replaced completely:
WHERE name = 'Carol';
</programlisting>
- An array may also be updated at a single element:
+ An array can also be updated at a single element:
<programlisting>
UPDATE sal_emp SET pay_by_quarter[4] = 15000
WHERE name = 'Bill';
-</programListing>
+</programlisting>
or updated in a slice:
WHERE name = 'Carol';
</programlisting>
+ The slice syntaxes with omitted <replaceable>lower-bound</replaceable> and/or
+ <replaceable>upper-bound</replaceable> can be used too, but only when
+ updating an array value that is not NULL or zero-dimensional (otherwise,
+ there is no existing subscript limit to substitute).
</para>
<para>
- A stored array value can be enlarged by assigning to an element adjacent to
- those already present, or by assigning to a slice that is adjacent
- to or overlaps the data already present. For example, if array
- <literal>myarray</> currently has 4 elements, it will have five
- elements after an update that assigns to <literal>myarray[5]</>.
+ A stored array value can be enlarged by assigning to elements not already
+ present. Any positions between those previously present and the newly
+ assigned elements will be filled with nulls. For example, if array
+ <literal>myarray</> currently has 4 elements, it will have six
+ elements after an update that assigns to <literal>myarray[6]</>;
+ <literal>myarray[5]</> will contain null.
Currently, enlargement in this fashion is only allowed for one-dimensional
arrays, not multidimensional arrays.
</para>
<para>
- Array slice assignment allows creation of arrays that do not use one-based
+ Subscripted assignment allows creation of arrays that do not use one-based
subscripts. For example one might assign to <literal>myarray[-2:7]</> to
- create an array with subscript values running from -2 to 7.
+ create an array with subscript values from -2 to 7.
</para>
<para>
- New array values can also be constructed by using the concatenation operator,
- <literal>||</literal>.
+ New array values can also be constructed using the concatenation operator,
+ <literal>||</literal>:
<programlisting>
SELECT ARRAY[1,2] || ARRAY[3,4];
?column?
</para>
<para>
- The concatenation operator allows a single element to be pushed on to the
+ The concatenation operator allows a single element to be pushed onto the
beginning or end of a one-dimensional array. It also accepts two
<replaceable>N</>-dimensional arrays, or an <replaceable>N</>-dimensional
and an <replaceable>N+1</>-dimensional array.
</para>
<para>
- When a single element is pushed on to the beginning of a one-dimensional
- array, the result is an array with a lower bound subscript equal to
- the right-hand operand's lower bound subscript, minus one. When a single
- element is pushed on to the end of a one-dimensional array, the result is
- an array retaining the lower bound of the left-hand operand. For example:
+ When a single element is pushed onto either the beginning or end of a
+ one-dimensional array, the result is an array with the same lower bound
+ subscript as the array operand. For example:
<programlisting>
-SELECT array_dims(1 || ARRAY[2,3]);
+SELECT array_dims(1 || '[0:1]={2,3}'::int[]);
array_dims
------------
[0:2]
</para>
<para>
- When an <replaceable>N</>-dimensional array is pushed on to the beginning
+ When an <replaceable>N</>-dimensional array is pushed onto the beginning
or end of an <replaceable>N+1</>-dimensional array, the result is
analogous to the element-array case above. Each <replaceable>N</>-dimensional
sub-array is essentially an element of the <replaceable>N+1</>-dimensional
SELECT array_dims(ARRAY[1,2] || ARRAY[[3,4],[5,6]]);
array_dims
------------
- [0:2][1:2]
+ [1:3][1:2]
(1 row)
</programlisting>
</para>
<function>array_prepend</function>, <function>array_append</function>,
or <function>array_cat</function>. The first two only support one-dimensional
arrays, but <function>array_cat</function> supports multidimensional arrays.
-
- Note that the concatenation operator discussed above is preferred over
- direct use of these functions. In fact, the functions are primarily for use
- in implementing the concatenation operator. However, they may be directly
- useful in the creation of user-defined aggregates. Some examples:
+ Some examples:
<programlisting>
SELECT array_prepend(1, ARRAY[2,3]);
{{5,6},{1,2},{3,4}}
</programlisting>
</para>
+
+ <para>
+ In simple cases, the concatenation operator discussed above is preferred
+ over direct use of these functions. However, because the concatenation
+ operator is overloaded to serve all three cases, there are situations where
+ use of one of the functions is helpful to avoid ambiguity. For example
+ consider:
+
+<programlisting>
+SELECT ARRAY[1, 2] || '{3, 4}'; -- the untyped literal is taken as an array
+ ?column?
+-----------
+ {1,2,3,4}
+
+SELECT ARRAY[1, 2] || '7'; -- so is this one
+ERROR: malformed array literal: "7"
+
+SELECT ARRAY[1, 2] || NULL; -- so is an undecorated NULL
+ ?column?
+----------
+ {1,2}
+(1 row)
+
+SELECT array_append(ARRAY[1, 2], NULL); -- this might have been meant
+ array_append
+--------------
+ {1,2,NULL}
+</programlisting>
+
+ In the examples above, the parser sees an integer array on one side of the
+ concatenation operator, and a constant of undetermined type on the other.
+ The heuristic it uses to resolve the constant's type is to assume it's of
+ the same type as the operator's other input — in this case,
+ integer array. So the concatenation operator is presumed to
+ represent <function>array_cat</>, not <function>array_append</>. When
+ that's the wrong choice, it could be fixed by casting the constant to the
+ array's element type; but explicit use of <function>array_append</> might
+ be a preferable solution.
+ </para>
</sect2>
- <sect2>
+ <sect2 id="arrays-searching">
<title>Searching in Arrays</title>
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>array</primary>
+ <secondary>searching</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
<para>
- To search for a value in an array, you must check each value of the
- array. This can be done by hand, if you know the size of the array.
+ To search for a value in an array, each value must be checked.
+ This can be done manually, if you know the size of the array.
For example:
<programlisting>
</programlisting>
However, this quickly becomes tedious for large arrays, and is not
- helpful if the size of the array is uncertain. An alternative method is
+ helpful if the size of the array is unknown. An alternative method is
described in <xref linkend="functions-comparisons">. The above
query could be replaced by:
SELECT * FROM sal_emp WHERE 10000 = ANY (pay_by_quarter);
</programlisting>
- In addition, you could find rows where the array had all values
+ In addition, you can find rows where the array has all values
equal to 10000 with:
<programlisting>
</para>
+ <para>
+ Alternatively, the <function>generate_subscripts</> function can be used.
+ For example:
+
+<programlisting>
+SELECT * FROM
+ (SELECT pay_by_quarter,
+ generate_subscripts(pay_by_quarter, 1) AS s
+ FROM sal_emp) AS foo
+ WHERE pay_by_quarter[s] = 10000;
+</programlisting>
+
+ This function is described in <xref linkend="functions-srf-subscripts">.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ You can also search an array using the <literal>&&</> operator,
+ which checks whether the left operand overlaps with the right operand.
+ For instance:
+
+<programlisting>
+SELECT * FROM sal_emp WHERE pay_by_quarter && ARRAY[10000];
+</programlisting>
+
+ This and other array operators are further described in
+ <xref linkend="functions-array">. It can be accelerated by an appropriate
+ index, as described in <xref linkend="indexes-types">.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ You can also search for specific values in an array using the <function>array_position</>
+ and <function>array_positions</> functions. The former returns the subscript of
+ the first occurrence of a value in an array; the latter returns an array with the
+ subscripts of all occurrences of the value in the array. For example:
+
+<programlisting>
+SELECT array_position(ARRAY['sun','mon','tue','wed','thu','fri','sat'], 'mon');
+ array_positions
+-----------------
+ 2
+
+SELECT array_positions(ARRAY[1, 4, 3, 1, 3, 4, 2, 1], 1);
+ array_positions
+-----------------
+ {1,4,8}
+</programlisting>
+ </para>
+
<tip>
<para>
Arrays are not sets; searching for specific array elements
- may be a sign of database misdesign. Consider
+ can be a sign of database misdesign. Consider
using a separate table with a row for each item that would be an
array element. This will be easier to search, and is likely to
- scale up better to large numbers of elements.
+ scale better for a large number of elements.
</para>
</tip>
</sect2>
- <sect2>
+ <sect2 id="arrays-io">
<title>Array Input and Output Syntax</title>
+ <indexterm>
+ <primary>array</primary>
+ <secondary>I/O</secondary>
+ </indexterm>
+
<para>
The external text representation of an array value consists of items that
are interpreted according to the I/O conversion rules for the array's
around the array value plus delimiter characters between adjacent items.
The delimiter character is usually a comma (<literal>,</>) but can be
something else: it is determined by the <literal>typdelim</> setting
- for the array's element type. (Among the standard data types provided
- in the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> distribution, type
- <literal>box</> uses a semicolon (<literal>;</>) but all the others
- use comma.) In a multidimensional array, each dimension (row, plane,
+ for the array's element type. Among the standard data types provided
+ in the <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> distribution, all use a comma,
+ except for type <type>box</>, which uses a semicolon (<literal>;</>).
+ In a multidimensional array, each dimension (row, plane,
cube, etc.) gets its own level of curly braces, and delimiters
must be written between adjacent curly-braced entities of the same level.
- You may write whitespace before a left brace, after a right
- brace, or before any individual item string. Whitespace after an item
- is not ignored, however: after skipping leading whitespace, everything
- up to the next right brace or delimiter is taken as the item value.
- </para>
-
- <para>
- As shown previously, when writing an array value you may write double
- quotes around any individual array
- element. You <emphasis>must</> do so if the element value would otherwise
- confuse the array-value parser. For example, elements containing curly
- braces, commas (or whatever the delimiter character is), double quotes,
- backslashes, or leading white space must be double-quoted. To put a double
- quote or backslash in a quoted array element value, precede it with a
- backslash.
- Alternatively, you can use backslash-escaping to protect all data characters
- that would otherwise be taken as array syntax or ignorable white space.
</para>
<para>
The array output routine will put double quotes around element values
- if they are empty strings or contain curly braces, delimiter characters,
- double quotes, backslashes, or white space. Double quotes and backslashes
+ if they are empty strings, contain curly braces, delimiter characters,
+ double quotes, backslashes, or white space, or match the word
+ <literal>NULL</>. Double quotes and backslashes
embedded in element values will be backslash-escaped. For numeric
data types it is safe to assume that double quotes will never appear, but
- for textual data types one should be prepared to cope with either presence
- or absence of quotes. (This is a change in behavior from pre-7.2
- <productname>PostgreSQL</productname> releases.)
+ for textual data types one should be prepared to cope with either the presence
+ or absence of quotes.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ By default, the lower bound index value of an array's dimensions is
+ set to one. To represent arrays with other lower bounds, the array
+ subscript ranges can be specified explicitly before writing the
+ array contents.
+ This decoration consists of square brackets (<literal>[]</>)
+ around each array dimension's lower and upper bounds, with
+ a colon (<literal>:</>) delimiter character in between. The
+ array dimension decoration is followed by an equal sign (<literal>=</>).
+ For example:
+<programlisting>
+SELECT f1[1][-2][3] AS e1, f1[1][-1][5] AS e2
+ FROM (SELECT '[1:1][-2:-1][3:5]={{{1,2,3},{4,5,6}}}'::int[] AS f1) AS ss;
+
+ e1 | e2
+----+----
+ 1 | 6
+(1 row)
+</programlisting>
+ The array output routine will include explicit dimensions in its result
+ only when there are one or more lower bounds different from one.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ If the value written for an element is <literal>NULL</> (in any case
+ variant), the element is taken to be NULL. The presence of any quotes
+ or backslashes disables this and allows the literal string value
+ <quote>NULL</> to be entered. Also, for backward compatibility with
+ pre-8.2 versions of <productname>PostgreSQL</>, the <xref
+ linkend="guc-array-nulls"> configuration parameter can be turned
+ <literal>off</> to suppress recognition of <literal>NULL</> as a NULL.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ As shown previously, when writing an array value you can use double
+ quotes around any individual array element. You <emphasis>must</> do so
+ if the element value would otherwise confuse the array-value parser.
+ For example, elements containing curly braces, commas (or the data type's
+ delimiter character), double quotes, backslashes, or leading or trailing
+ whitespace must be double-quoted. Empty strings and strings matching the
+ word <literal>NULL</> must be quoted, too. To put a double quote or
+ backslash in a quoted array element value, use escape string syntax
+ and precede it with a backslash. Alternatively, you can avoid quotes and use
+ backslash-escaping to protect all data characters that would otherwise
+ be taken as array syntax.
+ </para>
+
+ <para>
+ You can add whitespace before a left brace or after a right
+ brace. You can also add whitespace before or after any individual item
+ string. In all of these cases the whitespace will be ignored. However,
+ whitespace within double-quoted elements, or surrounded on both sides by
+ non-whitespace characters of an element, is not ignored.
</para>
<note>
Remember that what you write in an SQL command will first be interpreted
as a string literal, and then as an array. This doubles the number of
backslashes you need. For example, to insert a <type>text</> array
- value containing a backslash and a double quote, you'd need to write
+ value containing a backslash and a double quote, you'd need to write:
<programlisting>
-INSERT ... VALUES ('{"\\\\","\\""}');
+INSERT ... VALUES (E'{"\\\\","\\""}');
</programlisting>
- The string-literal processor removes one level of backslashes, so that
+ The escape string processor removes one level of backslashes, so that
what arrives at the array-value parser looks like <literal>{"\\","\""}</>.
In turn, the strings fed to the <type>text</> data type's input routine
become <literal>\</> and <literal>"</> respectively. (If we were working
with a data type whose input routine also treated backslashes specially,
<type>bytea</> for example, we might need as many as eight backslashes
in the command to get one backslash into the stored array element.)
+ Dollar quoting (see <xref linkend="sql-syntax-dollar-quoting">) can be
+ used to avoid the need to double backslashes.
</para>
</note>
<tip>
<para>
- The <literal>ARRAY</> constructor syntax is often easier to work with
- than the array-literal syntax when writing array values in SQL commands.
- In <literal>ARRAY</>, individual element values are written the same way
- they would be written when not members of an array.
+ The <literal>ARRAY</> constructor syntax (see
+ <xref linkend="sql-syntax-array-constructors">) is often easier to work
+ with than the array-literal syntax when writing array values in SQL
+ commands. In <literal>ARRAY</>, individual element values are written the
+ same way they would be written when not members of an array.
</para>
</tip>
</sect2>
projects / postgresql / blobdiff